See ClIERETIIITE.
Foreign punishments, unknown to the Jewish law, were the following : 1. Sawing in pieces (2 Sam. xii, 31). See Saw. 2. Dichotomy., i. e. cutting asunder {ciXoroptlv or fu\i'Ctiv = ^'' quartering") or dismember- ment (^B'.^, 1 Sam. XV, 33 ; jutXtori haipilu, Josephus, Ant. XV, 8, 4; a barbarous instance is given in Jose- phus, .4 w<. xiii, 12, G; and an inhuman murder in Judg. xix, 29 ; but 1 Kings iii, 25, does not belong here) of the living being (see Krumbholz, De pxna per to Cixo- TOjitiv significata, in the BlU. Brem. vii, 234 sq.), which was universal among the Babj'lonians (Dan. ii, 5 ; iii, 29 : in 2 Sam. iv, 12 ; 2 Mace, i, 16, mangling after death is indicated by way of infamy; compare Livy, viii, 28 ; in Ezek. xvi, 40 ; xx, 47, dichotomy is not to be understood), as well as Egyptians (Herod, ii, 139 ; iii, 13) and Persians (Herod, vii, 39 ; Diod. Sic. xvii, 83; comp. Horace, Sat. i, 1, 99 sq. ; 2 Mace, vii, 8 ; Matt, xxiv, 51 ; Luke xii, 4G ; Koran, xx, 74 ; xxvi, 49; Assemani, Murtyrol. Or. i, 241 sq.). 3. Precipita- tion (r!i:''"ad, 2 Chron. xxv, 12; comp. Psa. cxli, G- KaraKprifivirrpoc, Luke iv, 29 ; comp. 2 Mace, vi, 10) from a rock ("dejicere de saxo Tarpeio" or "ex ag- gere," Suetonius, Calig. 27) is well known as a Eoman mode of execution (for the Athenians, seeWachsmuth, Ifellen. Alterth. ii, 20). 4. Tympanism {ri'inrui'iapoQ), or beating to death (Heb. xi, 35; A. V. "torture;" comp. Aristot. Rhtt. ii, 5 ; Lucian, Jup. Trag. 19, etc.), of which the instrument was a cudgel (jvinravov, 2 Mace, vi, 19, 28, A. V. "torment;" Aristophanes, Plut. 47G) ; but it is uncertain whether we are thereby to understand simply a club with which the unfortunates were dispatched, or a wooden hoop upon which they were stretched in the manner of a rack (comp. Jose- phus, De ifaccah. viii, 5 and 9). See Tympanum.
Besides the above, the following methods of exesu- tion are named in the Bible as practised by nations in the neighljorhood of Palestine : 1. Burning alive in a furnace (Dan. iii, G, 11, 15, 19 sq.), which occurs in modern Persia (Chardin, Voyage, vi, 218), is of very earlj' date (if we may trust the traditions concerning Abraham [q. v.], Targ. on 2 Chron. xxviii, 3); like- wise roasting or boiling convicts over a slow fire (Jer. xxix, 22 [see Hebenstreit, De Achahi et Zedehim sup- plicio, Lips. 173G] ; 2 IMacc. vi, 5). See John (the Apostle), An example of burning alive does not occur (2 Sam. xxi, 31, marg. 'nb'a ; see Thenius, iu loc.) until the time of Herod (Josephus, ll^ar, i, 33, 4); but in Egypt the vindictive Itoman magistrates took pleasure in Inirning Jews (Philo, ii, 542, 527). No instances of burying alive (f 'tesias, Pers. xii. 53 ; Livy, viii, 15, etc.) are found in the Scriptures (Xinn. xvi, 30 sq., is not in point). 2. Casting into the lions' den (Dan. vi). Sec Lion ; Den. 3. Suffocation in hot
EXECUTIOXER
392 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY
ashes (2 ISIacc. xiii, 5 sq. ; comp. Valer. Jlax. ix, 2, G, " He filled with ashes a place inelosed by high walls, with a beam projecting within, upon which he placed the doomed, so that, when overcome with drowsiness, they fell into the insidious ash-heap below;" sec Cte- sias, Pers. 47 and 52). See Ashks. 4. Dashing in pieces children (sucklings) on the corners of walls, which occurred on the sack of cities (Isa. xiii, IG, 18 ; Hos. xiv, 1 ; Nah. iii, 10 ; comp. I'sa. cxxxvii, 9), like the ripping open of pregnant women (2 Kings viii, 12 ; XV, 16 ; Hos. xiv, 1 ; Amos i, 13), is, with the excep- tion of 2 Kings xiv, 16, only a heathenish barbarity. On crucifixion, see Cuucify. 5. Finall}-, drowning {KuretTToi'Ttai^ioc, Matt, xviii, 6), and fighting with wild beasts Qripio/^iaxtn, 1 Cor. xv, 32), are but casually alluded to in the N. T. Drowning, as a mode of in- flicting death, is old (comp. Exod. i, 22). Among the Eomaus, those gniltj- of parricide were sewed in sacks (culei) and then drowned (Cicero, Rose. Am. 25; ad Herenn. i, 13 ; Seneca, Clem, i, 15 ; Juvenal, viii, 214) ; but this in the time of the emperors came to be deemed an inhuman mode of execution (comp. Josephus, Ant. xiv, 15, 10; TFrtr, i, 22, 2; Lactantius, Mart, persec. XV, 3) ; and thus remaining under the water (Jer. li, C3) was thought a peculiarly severe fate (Josephus, Apion, i, 34 ; comp. Matt, xviii, G ; see Gcitz, De pis- trinis vett. p. 131 sq. ; Grafe, De KaTairovrmiiO)., ntim fuerit snppHc. Judceoritm, Lips. 1662 ; AVelleius, Be supplicio siibmers. Havn. 1701 ; Scherer, De kcitciwovt. api. antiq. Argent, xvii, 4). Such cruel punishments sometimes followed the mutilations of martyrdom (2 Mace, vii, 4, 7, 10). On (henomachy, see Games ; and on the passage 3 Mace. 5, comp. I'orphyr}', Ahstin. ii, 57. See generally Carpzov, Ajipar. p. 581 sq. ; Mi- chaelis, De judiciis pcenisque capitatihus in S. 8. (Hal. 1749 ; also in Ugolini Thesaur. xxvi, and Pott's Syl- loge, iv, 177 sq.); Jahn, Archuol. II, ii, 347 sq. ; Mi- chaelis, Mos. Recht, v, 11 sq. — Winer, ii, 11. Compare Punishment.