33 ; so four divisions, 2 Mace, viii, 22 : the expression wings of the army was already known, comp. £"£53 Isa. viii, 8 ; CSSX, Ezek. xii, 14, 17; xxxviii, 6, etc.; see Gesenius, Comment, zu Jes. i, 335, and Thesaur. p. 229). The field was ju-obably fought man against man. The extended arms of the combatants appear to have been bare ("exserti lacerti, humeri," etc. Sil. Ital. xii, 715; Lucan, ii, 543 ; Statins, Theh. i, 413, etc.), the military mantle having no armlets (c( nip. Ezek. iv, 7; Isa. Iii, 10; so Dougtaii Anakct. i, 257 sq.). Great prowess, especially bodily dexterity and agility (for attack and pursuit), was a main qualifica- tion for the soldier or oflicer (2 Sam. i, 23; ii, 18; 1 Chron. xii, 8; Hab. iii, 19; the "swift of fccf of the Homeric heroes). Signals for retreat or desisting from pursuit of the enemy were sounded on the trunipet (-iSid, 2 Sam. ii, 28 ; xviii, 16 ; xx, 22). Single com- bat (q. V.) between two champions, which decided the battle (like the Horatii and Curiatii of Livy, i, 24), is the well-known one between David and Golir.th (1 Sam. xvii) ; another example occurs 2 Sam. ii, 14 sq. Sometimes peculiar stratagems were resorted to in the fight (comp. 2 Kings vii, 12 sq. ; see Kosenmiillcr, Morrjenl. iii, 233 sq.), especially the surprise (Judg. vii, IG sq.), the ambuscade (S^^N, Josh, viii, 2, 12 ; Judg. XX, 36; 1 Sam. xv, 5), and surrounding (2 Sam. V, 23). Informants and spies (S'^xS'n^, kutci- rTKOTTOi) were also employed (Josh, ii, vi, xxii; Judg. vii, 10- sq. ; 1 Sam. xxvi, 4; 1 Mace, v, 38; xii, 26). Distinguished acts of individual valor were often se- cured l)y an appointed prize (Josh, xv, 16 ; Judg. i, 12 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 25 sq. ; xviii. 25 sq. ; 1 Chron. xi, 6). With the design of insuring a successful issue in bat- tle, the sanctuary (ark of the covenant) was sometimes carried into the field (1 Sam. iv, 4 sq. ; comp. 2 Sam, V, 21). AVe have no sufficient accounts as to the dis- position of the Hebrew camp aside from the Mosaic arrangement (Numb, ii); although from 1 Sara, xvii, 20 ; xxvi, 5, it appears to have had a circular form, like that of the Arabs (also the Bedouins, Arvieux, iii, 214) and ancient Greeks (Xenoph. Re]). Laced, xii, 1), and we may understand the term h'C"0 (Auth. Vers. " trench"') to refer to the bulwark of vehicles and beasts of burden, or (with Thenius) the circumvalla- tion of the encampment (q. v.). Tlie camps were usually' guarded by carefully-posted sentinels (Judg. vii, 19 ; 1 Mace, xii, 27), and during the action a gar- rison remained in them or among the baggage (1 Sam. XXX, 24). Vanquished enemies were in geneial treat- ed very severely : the captured generals and jirinces were put to death (Josh, x, 24; Judg. vii, 25); not unfrequently they were cut to jiicces alive or beheaded when dead (2 Mace, xv, 30; 1 Sam. xvii, 54; ccmp. Herodot. vii, 77; Joseph. War, i, 17, 2); all warriors were stripped (1 Sam. xxxi, 8 : 2 Jlacc. viii, 27), and the living captives either carried into slavery- (Numb. xxxi, 26 sq. ; Deut. xx, 14 ; some mitigation, howev- er, being shown in the case of females, Deut. xxi, 11 sq.) or put to death (Judg. ix, 45), sometimes in a cruel manner (2 Sam. xii, 31 ; 2 Chron. xxiii, 12 ; comp. Judg. viii, 7), cr even mutilated (Judg. i, 6 sq. ; 1 Sam. xi, 2), although these cases of extreme severity are evidently peculiar and exceptional. As in all an- cient warfare, the gentler sex and tender age were not always spared amid the ruthless fury of vengeance : tliere are notices of women violated or disembowelled of their unborn infants, and of children daslicd in pieces against stones and the corners of streets (2 Kings XV, 16; comp. 2 Kings viii, 12; Isa. xiii, IG; Amos i, 13; Hos. x, 14 ; xiv, 1 ; Nah. iii, 10; 2 Mace. V, 13 ; see Schultens, Monument, hi.itor. A rah. p. 125 ; Wachsmuth, Hellen. Alterthiimer, iii, 425); altliougli these occur chiefly' in connection with heathen coun- tries (comp. Josephus, Apion, ii, 29). Captured horses were hamstrung (2 Sam. viii, 4; Josh, xi, 6, 9). But
FIGURE
557
FIJI ISLANDS
see Booty. Conquered cities were occasionally burnt or demolished (Judg. ix, 45 ; 1 Mace, v, 28, o'i ; x, 84.) ; at least heatlien sanctuaries were destroyed (1 Mace. V, 68 ; X, 84) or carried away (Isa. xlvi, 1 ; see Gcse- nius, Comment, in loc.) : the open country itself was laid waste (Judg. vi, 4; 1 Chron. xx, 1 ; 2 Kings iii, 19, 25; comp. Judith ii, 17; Ilerodot. i, 17). Some- times the conquerors contented themselves with pull- ing down the fortifications and carrying away the treasures (2 Kings xiv, 14 ; comp. 1 Kings xiv, 26 ; 2 Kings xxiv, 13), demanded hostages (2 Kings xiv, 14), and exacted contributions (2 Kings xviii, 14; see Isa. xxxiii, is) ; garrisons were also left in charge (2 Sam. viii, 6, 14). But a more aljsolutc war of extermina- tion was waged by the Hebrew people against the Canaanites on the eisode into Palestine. See Ac- cursed. Victory was celebrated with joyful shouts, songs, and dances (Judg. v; 1 Sam. xviii, 6 sq. ; 2 Sam. xxii ; Judith xvi, 2, 24; 1 Mace, iv, 24); tro- phies were also set up (1 Sam. xv, 12; 2 Sam. viii, 13; but see Thenius, ad loc.). As permanent memo.ials of good fortune in war, captured weapons or pieces of armor were deposited in the sanctuary (1 Sam. xxi, 9 ; see xxxi, 10 ; 2 Kings xi, 10 ; 1 Chron. x, 10 ; comp. Homer, II. vii, 83 ; Virg. JEn. vii, 183 sq. ; Justin, ix, 7; Lucan, i, 240; Tacit. Annul, i, 59, 2). For mili- tary exploits, individuals were honored with presents or a promotion (1 Sam. xviii, 25 sq. [comp. Kosellini, Monum. S/or. iv, 74] ; 2 Sam. xviii, 11), and David bad a sort of honorary legion (2 Sam. xxiii, 8). Herod the Great once rewarded all his soldiers for a hard- earned victory with money (Joseph. .4«^ xiv, 15, 4). Leaders who. fell were honored hy the army with mil- itary mourning (2 Sam. iii, 31), and their weapons were placed in tlieir grave (Ezek. xxxii, 27 ; comp. Dougtaei Anal, ut sup.), as in that case the burial (with the tumultuary pomp of war, Amos ii, 2) of the remains was a cardinal dutj' of the army and its com- mander (I Kings xi, 15). The scrupulousness of the later Jews respacting the observance of the Sabbath (q. v.) sometimes gave tlie enemy an advantage over them. See generally Lydii Syntagma da re miitari., c. notis Van Til (Donlrai, 16;)8 ; also in Ugolini Thes. xxvii). Kausler's Wurterh. der ScMacten (dler Volker (vol. i, Ulm, 1825) is of little value for Hebrew ar- chaiology. — Winer, i, 680. JComparc Battle. On 1 Cor. ix, 26, see Games.