also was illefcal, and put forth as the candidate for the primacy cardinal Langton, an Englishman by birth, but a devoted follower of the papal prince. Of course the monks, however reluctantly, acted on the suggestion of the supntne head of the Church ; but John by no means gave his adhesion to an act the important resuhs of which he could well foresee. He at Mice initiated vio- lent measures against the native clergy, determined to retain for the crown the rights of investiture (q. v.). Innocent III, however, finding that he could not con- quer the stubborn John by kind measures, at first mild- ly hinted the interdict, and in 1208 actually subjected the whole kingdom to this ecclesiastical chastisement, and the year following added to it the excommunica- tion of John himself, absolving his subjects from their allegiance to him, and permitting them even to depose him from the throne. But John paid little heed to this disjjlay of " ecclesiastical thunder," and in the midst of it even ventured to engage in war with Scotland, and with an energy quite uncommon to him suppressed all rebel- lious outbursts in his own domains. Innocent, finding his "ecclesiastical artillery" to be inefiicient against England's king, entered into league with Thilip Au- gustus, and caused the latter to prepare for an invasion of England. This undertaking soon brought John to terms, and in 1213 (May 13) lie at last consented to sub- mit to all the demands of the Holy See, of which the admission of the pope's nominee, Stephen de Langton, to the archbishopric of Canterbury, was the first. Nay, he even yielded much more than could have consistent- ly been asked of him by the Roman see, and perpetra- ted an act of disgraceful cowardice, which has heaped everlasting infamy on his memory. Two days after, he made over to the pope the liingdoms of England and Ireland, to be held by him and by tlie Roman Church in fee, and took to his holiness the ordinary oath taken by vassals to their lords (see Reichel, The. Roman See in the Middle Affem, p. 251 sq.). It is not to be wondered at that the Roman see now readily conceded to the de- mand of John that hereafter there should be an oblivion of the past on both sides, and that the bull of excommu- nication shoiUd be revoked by the pojie, while, in return, John Avas obliged to pledge that of his disaffected Eng- lish subjects those who were in confinement should be liberated, and those who had tied or been banished be- yond seas should be permitted (o return home. Philip, whose ambition was not a little mortified by this sudden agreement of pope and king, persisted in his invasion scheme, though no longer apjiroved by Rome; but the French fleet was totally defeated in the harbor of Dam- me, 300 of their vessels were captured and above 100 destroyed. Subsequent events, however, proved more favorable to France, and aggravated tlic discontent at home against John. At length the English 1 inn ms, tired of their tyrannical ruler, after vainly petitioning for more liberal concessions, assembled at Stamford to wage war themselves against him. and marched directly on London, where thej' were liailed with great joy by the citizens. The king, fearing for his throne, now gladly consented to a conference. They met the king at Runnymead, and, as a result of this meeting, they obtained, on June 15th, 1215, the Great Charter (3Iagna Charta), the basis of the EngHsh Constitution. The pope, who had con- stantly opposed the English in their revolutionary move- ments, soon after annulled the charter, and the war broke out again. The barons now called over the dau- phin of France to be their leader, and Louis landed at Sandwich on May 30th, 1216. In attempting to cross the Wash, John lost his regalia and treasures, was taken ill, and died at Newark Castle on Oct. 19th, 1216, in the 49th 5'ear of his age. "All English historians paint the character of John in the darkest colors; and the history of his reign seems to prove that to his full share of the ferocity of his line he conjoined an unsteadiness and volatility, a susceptibility of being suddenly depressed by evil fortune, and elated beyond the bounds of moder- ation and prudence by its opposite, which gave a little-
ness to his character not belonging to that of any of hi, royal ancestors, lie is charged, in addition, witli a sav- age cruelty of disposition, and with the most unbounded licentiousness, wliile, on the other hand, so many vices are not allowed to have been reUeved by a single good quality" (Enz/L Cijclopmdia, s. v.). Of course this may all be due to the fact that John has had no historian, that his cause expired with himself, and that every writer of his story has told it in the spirit of the oppo- site and victorious party ; and, further, that the intense disgust always felt by every class of his countrymen at his base surrender of his kingdom in vassalage to the pope may have led them to regard with less distrust all adverse reports respecting his general character. See Milman, Lat. Clirist. v, ch. v; W&W&m, Middle A r/es ; Lin- gard, Hist, of Kniilmid. ii, ch. ii ; Hume, Hist, of Engl, i, ch. xi; Gieseler, r//. Hist, iii, § 54; Neander,'C/^. Hist. vii, 235 sq. ; Inett, Hist. Em/l. Ch. ii, ch. xix sq. ; Riddle^ Papacii, ii, 212 sq. (J. H, W.)