The main ridges of Lebanon and .Vnti-Lebanon are composed of Jura limestone, hard, partially crystallized, and containing few fossils. The strata have been great- ly disturbed. In some places they are almost perpen- dicular ; in others tilted over, laying bare veins and de- tached masses of trap. In the southern part of Leba- non, near Kedesh and Safed, are many traces of recent disturbance. Erom the earliest ages earthquakes have been frequent and most destructive in that region. The earthcpiake of 1837 buried thousands of the inhabitants of .Safed beneath the ruins of their houses i Robinson, ii, 422 sq. ; Ilandb. p. 43!S). In tlie ujipcr basin iif the Jor- dan, and along the eastern flank of llernion, trap rock abounds; the latter is the conniieaccment of the great trap-fields of Hauran (Porter, Damascus, ii, 240 sq.).
Over the Jura limestone there is in many places a more recent cretaceous deposit ; its color is gray, and sometimes pure white. It is soft, and abounds in flints and fossils, ammonites, echiiiites, ostr«a, chenopus, ne- rinea, etc., often occurring in large beds, as at Bhamdun above BevrCit. Fossil flsh are also found imbedded in
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the rock near the ancient Gebal (Reland, Palo'st. p. 321). Tliese cretaceous deposits occur along the whole western Hank of Lebanon, and the lower eastern ranges of Anti- Lebanon are wholly composed of them (D'Arvieux, J/«- moires, ii, 393 ; Elliot, Travels, ii, 257 ; Yolney, ii, 280).
Extensive beds of soft, friable sandstone are met with both in Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. According to An- derson, the sandstone is of a more recent period than the cretaceous strata. This change in the geological struct- ure gives great variety to the scenery of Lebanon. The regular and gracefid outlines of the sandstone ridges contrast well with tlie bolder and more abrupt limestone cliffs and peaks, while the ruddy hue and sombre pine forests of the former relieve the intense whiteness of the latter.
Coal has been found in the district of Metn, east of Beyrut, but it is impure, and the veins are too thin to rci)ay mining. Iron is found in the central and south- ern portions of Lebanon, and there is an extensive salt marsh on one of the eastern steppes of Anti-Lebanon (Vorter, JJamascus, i, IGl ; Ilandboo!:, p. 3G3; Yolney, i, 281 ; P.urckhardt, p. 27).
2. The Botam/ of Lebanon, like the geology, is to a great extent unknown. It appears to be very rich in the abundance, the variety, and the beauty of the trees, shrubs, and flowers of these noble mountains. The great variety of climate, from the tropical heat of the Jordan valley at the base of Hermon, to the eternal snows on its summit, affords space and fitting home for the vegetable products of nearly every part of the globe. The forests of Lebanon were celebrated throughout the ancient world. Its cedars were used in the temples and palaces of Jerusalem (1 Kings vi; 2 Sam. v, 11; Ezra iii, 7 ; Isa. xiv, 8 ; Josephus, War, v, 5, 2), Kome (Pliny, //. N. xiii, 11), and Assyria (Layard, N'm. and Bab. p. 356, G44) ; and the pine and oak were extensively em- ployed in ship-building (Ezek.xxvii,4-G). See Cedah. On these mountains we have still the cedar, pine, oak of several varieties, terebinth,juniper, walnut, plane, pop- lar, willow, arbutus, olive, mulljefry, carob, tig, pistachio, sycamore, hawthorn, ajjricot, plum, pear, apple, quince, pomegranate, orange, lemon, palm, and banana. The vine abounds everywhere. Oleanders line the streams, and rhododendrons crown the peaks liigher up, with the rock-rose, ivy, berberry, and honeysuckle. The loftiest summits are almost bare, owing to the cold and extreme dryness. There are even here, however, some varieties of low prickly shrubs, which lie on the ground like cush- ions, and look almost as sapless as the gravel from which they spring. Many of the flowers are bright and beau- tiful— the anemone, tulip, pink, ranunculus, geranium, crocus, lily, star of Bethlehem, convolvulus, etc. This- tles abound in immense variety. Tlie cereab and rer/f- lahks include wheat, barley, maize, lentils, beans, peas, carrots, turnips, potatoes, melons, pumpkins, cucumbers, tobacco, cotton, and numerous others.
Irrigation is extensively practiced, and wherever v/a- ter is abundant the crops are luxuriant. Probably in no part of the world are there more striking examples of the triumpli of industry over rugged and intractable nature than along the western slopes of Lebanon. The steepest banks are terraced ; every Tittle shelf and cran- ny in the cliffs is occupied by the thrifty husbandman, and planted with vine or mulberrj' (Pobinson, iii, 14,21, 615 ; Porter, Damasrns, ii, 283 ; Handbook, p. 410, 413).
3. Zoohir/ij. — Considerable numbers of wild beasts still inhabit the retired glens and higher peaks of Lebanon, including jackals, hyenas, wolves, bears, and panthers (2 Kings xiv, 9 ; Cant, iv, 8 ; Hal), ii, 17). See Palestine.
Anti-Libanus is more thinly peopled than its sister range, and it is more abundantly stocked with wild beasts. Eagles, vultures, and other birds of prey may be seen day after day sweeping in circles round the beetliug cliffs. Wild swine are numerous, and vast herds of gazelles roam over tlie bleak eastern steppes. See Zooi.OfiV.
IV. Climate. — There are great varieties of climate
and temperature in Lebanon. In the plain of Dan, at the f<juntain of the Jordan, the heat and vegetation are almost tropical, and the exhalations from the marshy plain render the whole region unhealthy. The semi- nomads who inhabit it are as dark in complexion as Egyptians. The thermometer often stands at 98° Fahr. in the shade on the site of Dan, while it does not rise above 32^ on the top of Hermon. The coast along the western base of Lebanon, though very sultry during the summer months, is not unhealthy. The fresh sea-breeze which sets in in the evening keeps the night compara- tively cool, and the air is drj' and free from miasma. Snow never falls on the coast, and it is very rarely seen at a lower elevation than 2000 feet. Frost" is unknown. In the plains of Coele-Syria (3000 feet) and Damascus (about 2300 feet), snow falls more or less every winter, sometimes eight inches deep on the streets and terraced roofs of Damascus, while the roads are too rough and hard with frost for travelling. The main ridges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon are generally covered with snow from December to March, sometimes so deeply that the roads are for weeks together impassable. Dur- ing the whole summer the higher parts of the moun- tains are cool and pleasant, the air is extremely diy, and malaria is unknown. From the beginning of June till about the 20th of September rain never falls, and clouds are rarely seen. At the latter date the autumn rains begin, generally accompanied with storms of thun- der and vivid lightning. January and February are the coldest months. The barley har\-est begins, on the plain of Phoenicia, about the end of April, but in the upper altitudes it is not gathered in till the beginning of August. During the summer, in the village of Shum- lan, on the western declivity of Lebanon, at an elevation of 2000 feet, in the hottest part of the day the thermom- eter does not rise above 83° Fahr., and in the night it usually goes down to 76°. From June 20th to August 20tn the barometer often does not vary a quarter of an inch; there are few cloudy days, and scarcely even a slight shower. At Bludan, in Anti-Lebanon, with an elevation of 4800 feet, the air is extremely dry, and the thermometer never rises in summer above 82° Fahr. in the shade. The nights are cool and pleasant. The si- rocco wind is severely felt along the coast and on the western slopes of Lebanon, but not so much in Anti- Lebanon. It blows occasionally during IMarch and April. L'dc is almost unknown along the mountain ridges, but in the low plains, and especially at the base of Hermon, it is very abundant (Psa. cxxxiii, 3).