LEIBNITZ
337
LEIDRADT
conceptions, the ingenious arguments, the various illus- trations, the abundant analogies by which this thesis is maintained and adorned, can receive here only their merited tribute of admiration. When (iod looked upon the work of each of the six days of creation, " He saw that it was good." More than this it is not given man to know : " that which is wanting cannot be numbered." But, if all events, if all changes, if all composite actions occur by divine preadaptation, it must be presumed that this is the best of worlds. There is wonderful coherence in the views of Leibnitz, interrupted and fragmentary as is their exposition. This dialectical consistency is so perfect, and in its evolution so s|)lendid and imposuig, that his scheme presents, both in the process of its con- struction and in its structure, the charm of a dream of the imagination. Nothing a])proaches it in magnifi- cence but the ideal universe of Plato.
Of course, if this is the best of possible worlds, and if its phenomena are determined by the divine preordina- tion or preorganization, evil, too apparent everyAvhere, must be merely contingent — a negative characteristic, a nonentity in itself. Leibnitz accordingly regards evil simply as imperfection — the privation of good. God is perfect : anything less than God must be imperfect. All limitation is imperfection ; all imperfection is defect of good — is evil. The evil increases in quality and in de- gree with each remove from the perfection of the Su- preme Existence. Hence, in this best of worlds, the taint of evil is over the whole creation :
"The trail of the serpent is over it all."
All this may be admitted, but it affords only an inade- quate explanation. It does not justify the retribution which is merited by all evil : it does not recognise the positive character of evil as the violation of the divine law and order ; it hardly permits the notion of such vio- lation. Leibnitz denies the existence of physical evil except as a consequence of moral evil ; and moral evil consists in voluntary increase of imperfection, in wilful estrangement from the Supreme Monad. Even thus, no sufficient reason can be assigned for ascribing sin, and for attaching a material or moral penalty to wliat is the result of a natural and inevitable imperfection. This defect in the system is clearly pointed out by Kant.
The unfathomable immensity of the creation can be but diml}^ apprehended by the finite and fallible mind of man. The mighty plan and purpose of (iod cannot be compressed within the compass of human intelligence. " We see as through a glass darkly." Schemes of the universe framed from broken and darkling glimpses be- come more delusive as they become more systematic. Leibnitz's intuitive principles, abstract analysis, and scholastic deduction were peculiarly apt to produce hal- lucinations.
Analysis for the discovery of vltimafe ahsfracts ; in- tuition for the acceptance of clear, distinct, and adequate ideas; the principle of contradiction as the test of ver- ity; the principle of the sufficient reason as the canon of actuality — these are the metaphysical principles or postulates of Leibnitz. The residtmg philosophy, both in conception and in construction, is exposed to " such tricks as hath strong imagination," and wants firm and assured foundation. It is a complex fantasy, a mathe- matical romance, a universe of shadows. Still, it is marked by -wonderful acuteness, logical coherence, and purity of spirit. It preludes, if it does not anticipate, the main doctrines of Kant, and is the fruitful parent of all the subsequent philosophy of Germany.
This exposition presents the leading tenets, the idees meres of Leibnitz, but it affords no image of the splen- did completeness of the entire theory, in which God is presented as the first beginning and" the last end— the Alpha and Omega of the whole order of things in time and out of time. Nor does it do justice to the vigorous thought, the profound reflection, the comprehensive in- telligence, the keen penetration, the exhaustless learn- ing, the wealth of knowledge, the varietv of illustration, v.— Y
the fervent and lofty morality, which give grace, and dignity, and grandeur to the whole and to all its parts. Jididi qua potui, non ut voliii, sed ut me spafii avgusti<e co'erjerunt. FuUer information must be sought from his own extensive works, and from the elucidations afforded by the numerous commentators on them. .
Literature. — Leibnitii Opera (ed. Dutens, Gen. 17C8, 6 vols. 4to). A complete edition of all his works is that by Pertz (Hamburg, 1845-47, 1st series ; 1847, 2d series ; 1853-62, 3d series). The latest is by Onno Klopp, 1st series, 1864-GG (5 vols. 8vo). Other editions are : O'lu- vres (ed. Foucher de Careil, Paris, 1854 sq., 20 vols.) ; Deutsche /ScA ?//?<=« (ed. Guhrauer, Berlin, 1838); Opera P/iUosopkica (ed. Erdmann, Berl. 1839-40) ; Opera Math- etnatica (ed. Gerhardt, Berlin, 1849-50) ; OLuvres (ed. Jacques, Par. 1842. 2 vols. 12mo) ; CEitrres philosophiqves (ed. Janet, Par. 1866, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Raspe, (Euvres Phil- osophiqnes de feu M. Leibniz (Amsterd. et Leips. 1765, 4to) ; Feder, Lettres Choisies de la Correspondance de M, Leibniz (Hanover, 1805) ; "Lnhmtz, Memoir recommend- ing the Conquest of Egypt to Louis XIV, etc. (London, 1801); Eccard, Lf6«« f/esZfzJwzVz (Berl. 1740); Jancourt, Vie de Leibniz (Amsterdam, 1756) ; Guhrauer, Leben des Leibnitz (Bresl. 1842 ; enlarged 1846) ; Yogel, Leben des Leibnitz (Leipsic, 1846) ; Mackie, Z/»/e of Leibnitz (Bos- ton, 1845). Leibnitz transmitted an Autobiography to his friend Pelisson, but it has never seen the light. See also Fontenelle, Eloge de I^eibniz (Paris, 1716) ; Bailly, Eloge de Leibniz (Paris, 1769); Kiistner, Lobsch?-ift avf Leibnitz (Altenb. 1769); V{a.nscivLS,G.G. Leibnitii Pi-in- cipia Philosophice more Geometrico demonstrata (1728, 4to) ; Ludovici, Principia Leibnitiana (Lips. 1737, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Bayle, Hist. Crit. Diet., may be consulted, especial- ly under the title Rorarius; EmeTy, Esprit de Leilmiz, etc. (Lj-ons, 1772, 2 vols. 8vo ; reprinted, Paris, 1803) ; Emery, Exposition de la Doctrine de Leilniz sur la B(- ligion (Paris, 1819, 8vo) ; Brucker, Hist. Crit, Philosophic (Lips. 1767 ; stiU an indispensable authority for Leib- nitz) ; Dugald Stewart, Supjjl. Encyclop. Britannica ; Sir James Mackintosh, ibid. ; Morell, Hist. Phil. XlXth Cen- tury (New York, 1848, 8vo) ; Lewes, Hist, of Philosophy (new edition, 2 vols. 8vo), vol. ii; and the other histo- rians of modern philosophy ; Biographie Universclle, s. V. Leibniz, by Biot, Duvau, Maine de Biran, and Stapfer ; ScheUing, /.Mfrmfe als Denl-er ; Helferich, Spinoza und Leibnitz; TAravaeTma.nn, Leibnitz und Herhart (Wien, 1849) ; Feucrbach, Darstelluitg, Entu-ickelung und. Kritik der Leibnitzschen Philosophie (Anspach, 1837) ; Leckej', Hist, of Morals, i, 25 ; Baumgarten-Crusius, Dogmen- gesch. ,- Hunt, Pantheism, p. 247 ; Gass, Dogmengesch. vol. ii andiii; l\\iXiX, Hist, of Rationalism, ]i.&,\0^; Saintes, Rationcdism, p. 56; Farrar, Crit. Hist, of Eree Thought, p. 56 sq. ; Dorner, Gesch. d.jn'Otest. Theol. p. 684 sq. ; Jour- nal of Spec. Philos. vol. i. No. 3, art. i ; vol. iii. No. 1, art. v; Revue Chret. 1868, p. 9; Brewster, Life of Sir Isaac Newton; Ediiib. Rev. ISiG (July); Atlantic Monthly, lib^ (June) ; Christian Examiner, xxviii, 418 sq. ; Contemp. Review; May, i867, art. iii ; Mtth. Qu. Rev. 1851 ( April\ p. 189, 211;" 1862 (April), p. 335; Revve des d. Moiides, 1861 { Jan. ). p. 15 ; also (Sept.), p. 81. (G. F. H.)