The number of martyrs who suifered death during the first ages of Christianity has been a subject of great controversy. The early ecclesiastical writers, with the natural pride of partisanship, have, it can hardly be doubted, leaned to the side of exaggeration. Some of their statements are palpably excessive ; and Gibbon, in his well-known sixteenth chapter, throws great doubt even on the most moderate of the computations of the Church historians. But it is clearly though briefiy shown by Guizot, in his notes on this celebrated chap- ter (see Jlilman's Gibboii's Decline and Fall, i, 508), that Gibbon's criticisms are founded on unfair and partial data, and that even the very authorities upon which he relies demonstrate the fallaciousness of his conclusions. Those who are interested in the subject will find it dis- cussed with much learning and considerable modera- tion in Ruinart's Acta Primitiva et Sinco-a Martyrum. Xo little difference of opinion has also existed as to what, in the exploration of the ancient Christian tombs in the Koman Catacombs, are to be considered as signs of martyrdom. The chief signs, in the opinion of older critics, were (1) the letters B. M., (2) the figure of a palm-tree, and (3) a phial with the remains of a red liquor believed to be blood. Each of these has in turn been the subject of dispute, but the last is commonly regarded as the conclusive sign of martyrdom. The first recorded martyr of Christianity, called the " proto- martyr," was the deacon Stephen, whose death is re- corded in Acts vi and vii.
See Siegel, Christliche Alterthumer, iii, 272 sq.; Bing- ham, Orif). Eccles. p. 102, etc.; Kiddle, Christian An- tiquit. p. 101 sq. ; Donaldson, Lit. ii, 284 sq. ; Neander, Plant ami Train. Christ. Churches (see Index) ; Lardner, Works, iii, 91, 219 sq. ; Jortin, Remarks, i, 34.5; Taylor, Anc. Christianit;i, p. 380; Milman, Christianity (see In- dex) ; Lat. Christianity (see Index) ; Waddington, Ch. Hist. pt. iv, p. 114; SchafF, Ch. Hist, i, 177 sq.,'l82 sq. : Coleman, A no. Chi-istidnity, p. 404 ; A m. Theol. Rev. 1860 (Aug.), p. 530; Zeitschr.histor. theol. 1850,p.315; Eadie, Merles. Cyclop, s. v. ; Ciiambcrs, Cyclop, s. v.
Martyrs, Canonization of the. Tfie ceremo- ny for canonizing saints in the Koniau C'atholic Church varied greatly until, in the middle of the last century, pope Benedict XIV definitely prescribed it. It is now as follows : After the candidate's reputation for sanctity has been duly proved, he is styled venerable, after which an inquiry is entered into to- establish the proof of his virtues, in a high or, as it is termed, heroic degree. For that purpose the whole life and all the actions of the candidate are scrutinized. That task devolves on the Sacred Congregation of the Kites, assisted by theolo-
gians and canonists, three audit<jfs of the rota, and monks belonging to five different orders. Natural phi- losophers and physicians are also called on to give their opinions on the temperament of the candidate and on the miracles which are attributed to him. The most important and the most original character in this court of inquiry is that of the promoter of the faith, also called the Advocate of the Devil. His Satanic majesty is a power which must be taken into account, and is allowed to have his cause pleaded even before the ecclesiastical tribunal. This advocate may be supposed to bring for- ward arguments to prove that the man who is a candi- date for canonization is guilty of everj- sin ; that lie has violated the ten commandments of God and those of the Church ; has eaten on fast days ; has entered into a compact ■v\ith the daemons of avarice, pride, envy, ha- tred, and malice; and that the miracles attributed to him were performed by the devil himself. The advo- cate would probably conclude his argument by saying, '• Kender therefore mito Satan that which is Satan's, and do not deprive Beelzebub of the fruit of his works." The advocate for the candidate then rises, and endeav- ors to overturn all the arguments of his learned brother by bringing forward and enlarging upon all the virtues of his client, and concludes by begging the judges to throw open to him the doors of beatitude, and adorn his forehead with the rays of glorj'. The tribunal then examines all the arguments jfro and con, and at length pronounces in favor of the candidate. Next comes the question of the miracles, and the natural philosophers are requested to bring forward all the objections they may have to make. They in their turn declare that science is vanquished, and the miracles are declared to be bona fide. A favorable report is then made to the pope, who delivers the sentence of beatification, and on the day appointed pronounces the canonization from his throne at the Vatican. The honors conferred by canonization are seven in number: 1. The names are inscribed in the ecclesiastical almanacs, in the list of martyrs, and in the litanies. 2. They are publicly invoked In the pray- ers and service of the Church. 3. Chapters, churches, and altars are dedicated to them. 4. Sacrifice is offered in their honor at the mass. 5. Their fete day is cele- brated. C. Their images are exhibited in the churches, and they may be there represented with a crown of light round the head. 7. Their relics are offered to the veneration of the faithful, and carried with pomp m sol- emn processions. See Canonizatiox.