archbishop Martin of Toledo invaded Andalusia in 1194, and laid the country waste; the following year king Alphonso HI of Castile sent a challenge to Africa to the governor, .Jacob Almansor, who, in return, came to Spain with a large army, and defeated Alphonso, July 19, 1 195. Thirty thdusand Cliristians, including the most distin- guished Si)aiiish knights, were kit slain on the field of battle. Almansor fortunately died soon after, and his successors had neither the spirit nor the means to follow I up his advantage. The Christians now perceived the necessity of combined action on their part ako, and I pope Innocent HI caused a crusade to be preached ; against the Moors, both m Spain and in Pranoe. In the wars which ensued the Christians [iroved successful, and completely routed their adversaries in the battle of Las Naves de Tolosa, on the Sierra Morena, July IG, 1212, and by this result brought about the termination of the rule of the Moors in Spain ; so that a tract of land, comprising 430 square miles, in the vicinity oPCiranada, 1 alone remained free from Christian rule. The Arago- j nians took Valencia, a part of Murcia, and the Balearic Islands; the Castilians took Estremadura, Cordova, and the remaining part of 5Iurcia; even (Jranada was com- pelled in 124G to surrender to king Perdinand of Cas- tile. Yet this province retained a sort of independence on account of its position, and its almost completely Moorish population. The position of the Arabs varied greatly in the different conquered provinces; but to the I shame of the so-called Christians of the Iberian penin- sula be it said that generally it was much worse than had been that of the Christians under the rule of the ]\Ioors. The Goths, after the conquest, under Moor- ish rule, had remained in possession of their lands; their taxes were made no higlier than those which j rested on the Moors subject to military services; they I retained their religion, their worship, their laws, and j their judges. The bishops, with their chapters, occu- I pied their former position, and were allowecl to call to- gether coimcils. They were only forbidden building new churches, ringing bells, and having processions. The civil government was intrusted to a civil magis- trate appointed liy the people, who was to act with the bishop. Lawsuits between Christians were to bcj ad- justed by the cadi according to the Gospel and the Gothic laws, and only disputes between Christians and I Arabs were judged by the Koran. The Christians who under these circumstances had endured Mohammedan rule received the name of Mozarabic Christians. Sec MozAKABic LnuisGV. The military classes ever re- mained entirely distinct, and in constant communication with their brethren at the north, acting secretly as their allies whenever they invaded the Moorish provinces. The Arabs under Christian rule, on the other hand, were in quite different conditions, antl even the concessions granted them were seldom conscientiously obser\-ed. The}' were generally allowed to follow their own mode of worship, but often excessive proselytizing zeal created exceptions, and converted tlie mostpies into churches. They were allowed to retain possession of their estates, but were seldom permitted to sell them, or to change their residence. They were suffered to elect their own judges, and only disputes with Christians were decided by Christian judges. They were obliged j to pay tithes of all their income to the state, besides the poll-tax levied by their feudal lords. They were I forbidden having slaves or Christian servants; but this was the fate only of those who had Kiihmil/ed to the Christians. Those whose cities had resisted and been conquered were all reduced into slavery in its severest form. The master could sell, piniisli. or kill them at his pleasure, and all lluir earnings were his by law. They could, however, olitain their freedom by becoming Chris- tians; but in after-times even this was restricted to the case when the master was either a Mohammedan or a Jew. By llicir conversion the Arabs were indeed en- dowed with all political rights, but by no means could they attain to the same social position as the old Chris-
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tians ; they were everywhere despised, and could sel- dom enter into other Christian families. A relapse into Islaraism was punished with the greatest severity, the penalty being, according to the circumstances, death by fire, spoliation, and inability to inherit. Occasion- ally, however, the relations between Moors and Chris- tians were more friendly, especially in the country, where landowners fully appreciated the skill and activ- ity of the Arabs as agriculturists. Among the nobility, the Arab nobles, by their courage and skill, as well as by their learning— much superior to that of their Span- ish conquerors— knew also how to command respect.