SACRAMENT
217
SACRAMENT
trine of the opvs operatiim, and also, as sacraments, all observances besides baptism and the Lord's sup])er, that the general drift of the Protestant doctrine be- came widely diffused and accepted during the tirst pe- riod of the Reformation. That the influence of coun- ter-discussion had come to be greatly dreaded by tlie Roman theologians is obvious from several expressions made use of by the Council of Trent in 1547. Never- theless, as we have seen, that council proceeded to re- affirm the mediieval theories of the sacraments in their most objectionable forms.
In many points of view, it may be regarded as ex- tremely unfortunate that among the active agents of the Reformation there arose serious differences of views as to the sacraments, and more especially that those dif- ferences resulted in actual divisions and oppositions be- tween brethren agreed in general principles and striv- ing for common results. On the other hand, it is not difficult to infer that much discussion was necessary at that period as a means of clearing away the misconcep- tions of preceding ages, and of bringing out scriptural truth into a prominent light. It is impracticable and quite unnecessary here to outline the successive and protracted controversies with reference to the sacra- ments which took place between Luther and Zwingli and their successive followers for several generations, or, indeed, the somewliat different controversies that prevailed in Great Britain, bearing upon the same sub- ject. It is, however, only just to remark that the influ- ence of John Calvin in the Protestant sacramental con- troversy was very opportune and verj' powerful. As a contemporary and friend both of Luther and Zwingli, he sought to mediate between the extreme views of both. His theory was, in fact, an ingenious compro- mise between the realism of Luther and the idealism of Zwingli, He adopted the figurative interpretation of Christ's words, tovto tan to (Tw/ja fiov, and rejected all carnal and materialistic conceptions of the eucharis- tic mystery ; but he at the same time strongly asserted a spiritual real presence and communion of Christ's body and blood for the nourishment of the soul. " He taught that believers, while they receive with their mouths the visible elements, receive also by faith the spiritual real- ities signified and sealed therebj' — namely, the benefit of the atoning sacrifice on the cross and the life-giving virtue of Christ's glorified humanity in heaven, which the Holy Ghost conveys to the soul in a supernatural manner; while unbelieving or unworthy communicants, having no inward connection with Christ, receive only bread and wine to their own judgment." Luther had always insisted upon the corporeal jiresence and the oral manducation of the body and blood of Christ by coninuniicants. Calvin substituted for that idea the virtual, or dynamic, presence of Christ's humanity, and a spiritual reception and assimilation of the same by the act of faith and through the mediation of the Holy Spirit. This view was substantially adopted by the writers and adherents of the Heidelberg Catechism, and, in fact, passed into all the leading Reformed con- fessions of faith. In fact, Melancthon, during the lat- ter period of his life, substantially a)>proved of Cal- vin's doctrine of the Lord's supper. That circumstance gave rise to a controversy in the bosom of the Luther- an Church, by which it was divided into Lutherans, or, more properly, ultra-Lutherans, and Melancthonians, or PhiHppists. Luther's doctrine, by a literal interpre- tation of the words of institution, not only involved the oral manducation, but the practical ubiquity, of the body of Christ. Under the influence of Pucer and Cal- vin, and a further study of Augustine and of the Holy Scriptures, Melancthon had rejected both these views; although, through modesty and strong personal attach- ment, he did not separate from Luther or define an op- posite theory. Luther, though grieved at these changes of view, nevertheless did not withdraw his friendship from IMelancthon ; but when both were dead, direct is- sues were made between their respective followers. A
long and bitter controversy ensued, which extended to several other topics of theology, as well as that relating to the ubiquity, or multipresence, of Christ's body. The high Lutherans insisted upon ubiquity as a necessary result of the real communication of the two natures in Christ; while tlie Philippists and Calvinists rejected it as inconsistent with the nature of a body, with the reality of Christ's ascension, and with the general prin- ciple that the infinite cannot be comprehended or shut up in the finite. At the end of the controversy, the views of the extreme Lutherans became limited to only a portion of the Protestants of (iermany ; while those of Jlelancthon and Calvin were adojjted by the Reform- ed churches of Germany, Switzerland, France, and the Netherlands. Practically, the same views were embod- ied in the later Helvetic confessions, in the creeds and catechisms of the Scotch Kirk, and in the Westminster Confession.
During the last three hundred years a great degree of practical unity has prevailed throughout Protestant Christendom in reference to the theory of the sacra- ments. This fact may be attributed to the general use and recognised authority of the Word of (iod. There have, indeed, been some small sects which, following the views of Socinus, have, by their theories, reduced the sacraments to mere commemorative observances, hav- ing a certain emblematic significance, but void of any spiritual influence. The Friends, or Quakers, have even rejected the sacraments as not designed for continued observance, at least in an outward form. They claim that the one baptism appointed for perpetuity among Christ's followers is the baptism of the Holy Ghost, and the true Lord's supper is that alluded to in Rev. iii, 20 : " Behold, I stand at the door, and knock : if any man hear my voice, and open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup with him, and he with me." Aside from such slight exceptions, the great body of Protestants, while rejecting the mass and all otlier superstitious cer- emonies of the Roman Catholic Church, have sought to practice the ordinances of baptism and the Lord's sup- per both in the form and spirit of their original appoint- ment. It is true that somewhat extended controversies have arisen as to the subjects and the mode of baptism, prompted chiefly by the exclusive claims of those who would reject from the Lord's supper all who have not been baptized by immersion (q. v. ; also Infakt Bap- tism). Another form of exception to the general Prot- estant sentiment has been exhibited by that class of Anglicans and others who have distinguished them- selves by those Romanizing tendencies which have so frequently terminated in adhesion to the Church of Rome, with her full list of sacraments.