the form of the soul : and birth, life, and death are but the diverse conditions of the soul. The conception of soul can only be reached by deductions" (Kant, \'orle- sunrjen ilber Metaphysik, p. 133-254; \Verke,\u, 00-78). "The what of the soul, its nature, comes as little into view as does the essential nature of things in general; the essential nature of the soul in itself remains unknown to us before it comes into a situation within which alone its life unfolds itself. The soul is also the focus into which flow together the movements of the bodily life that play hither and thither. The soul neither arises from the body nor from nothing, but goes forth from the substance of the intiiiite with the same substantiality which pertains to all the actual in nature that has sprung from the same infinite source. Our personali- ty is not composed of body and soul; rather does our true essence lie exclusively in the soul. The spirit is something higher than the soul. In the spirit is the unity of our being, our true Ego. The soul is but an element in its service. At death the soul passes away, the spirit ripens to a new existence" (Lotze, Mikrokos- mus ; Streitschriften, i, 138). "The soul, the conscious- ness a iwsteriori, is nothing but the individual being, so far as it is conscious, and can neither be, nor be thought of, apart from that individual being" (Schellwien, Seyn und Beivusstseyn, p. 117, 122). "The Ego which now ap- prehends itself as sentient or percipient, now as putting forth effort, willing, etc., knows itself at the same time as one and the same, the same abiding self. It is but an expression of this consciousness of unity when we speak of our own soul, and impute to it this or that predicate ; that is, when we distinguish our own soul, with its manifold characteristics, from ourselves, and in this act implicitly contrast ourselves as unity with the mutation and manifoldness of our intellectual life" (Ul- rici, Glanhen und Wissen, p. 64-66; Zeitsrhr. von Fichte, xxxvi, 232 ; Gott ii. die Naiur, p. 414-417).
Modern philosophers in Germany thus make a dis- tinction between •</'i;\'>; {Seek) and irvtvpa (Geist), or spirit and soul ; but they reverse the relative significance of these terms. Prof. (i. H. Schubert says that thesoulis the inferior part of our intellectual nature, while the. ■fyin-jV is that part of our nature which tends to the purely ra- tional, the lofty and divine. The doctrine of the iidtunil and the spiritual (q.v.) man, which we find in the writ- ings of Paul, may, it has been thought, have formed the basis upon which this mental dualism has been founded. The plainest and most common distinction taken in the use of the words soul and mind is, that in speaking of the mind of man we refer more to the various powers which it possesses, or the various operations which it performs; and in speaking of the sonl of man we refer rather to the nature and destiny of the human being. The following distinguishing features of spirit, mind, and soul have been given: "The first denotes the ani- mating faculty, the breath of intelligence, the inspiring principle, the spring of energy, and the prompter of ex- ertion; the second is the recording power, the preserver of impressions, the storer of deductions, the nurse of knowledge, and the parent of thought; the last is the disembodied, ethereal, self-conscious being, concentrating in itself all the purest and most refined of human excel- lences, every generous affection, every benevolent dis- position, every intellectual attainment, every ennobling virtue, and every exalting aspiration" {The rnrpone of Kxistenre [ 18,')(), 12mo], p. 79). ^iiy'//, sjiirit, when con- sidered sej)arately, signifies the i)rinci|)le o( life ; j-oT'C, ininil, the principle of intelligence. According to Plu- tarch, Kpiiit is the cause and beginning of motion, and mind of order and harmony with respect to motion. To- gether they signify an intelligent soul. Thus we say the "immortality" of the xonl, and the "powers" of the mind (Fleming, \'<)cahiilary of Science, s. v.). See Mind.
In the Holy Scriptures three principles are recognised (see especially 1 Thess. v, 23) as essential components of man — the soul{'n^'^, Trrti'f.ia), the sjiirit (wS3, \pvx'))!
SOUL
891
SOUL
and the hody C^il'S, tjap^ or OMfia) ; but these are not accurately, much less scientifically, defined. The first and the last of these elements clearly correspond to the material or physical and the immaterial or spiritual parts of man's nature, i. e. the soul and the body, as ordinarily defined by modern philosophers and scien- tists; but the middle term, the "spirit," is hard to be distinguished. Yet in all earthly creatures, even in the lowest forms of animals, there is clearly observable a principle, inherent indeed in the body, and yet distinct from the rational faculty of man or the instinclive in- telligence of brutes. This is usually styled " the animate principle," or briefly life. It is this which moulds the whole physical organism, and for this end controls, and to a large degree overrides, mere chemical and inorganic laws, producing combinations and results impossible to unvitalized substance. This power or essence — for it has not yet been determined whether it be distinct from or a mere result of the combination of soul and body — lias hitherto eluded the analysis of scientific and philo- sophical research, and it will probably remain an in- scrutable secret; but it is a sufficiently separate element of human and animal nature to warrant the distinctive nse of a special terra for it by the Biblical writers (which is carefully observed bj' them in the original, although frequently obscured in the English version). Thus spirit ('^33, ipvx'l) is never applied to God or to angelic beings, who are incorporeal; nor, on the other hand, is soul (n-ll, Trvivj.ia) ever used of beasts (except in Eccles. iii, 19, ^l, where it is evidently employed out of its proper sense for the sake of uniformity). Yet life (ITn) is as- cribed equalh- to all these classes o{ existence, although those only who have bodies are endowed with the or- ganic locomotive principle (Gen. i, "20 ; ii, 7). See Psy- chology.