The most prominent feature in the Turkish liistory of the 19th century is the successful revolt of the sub- ject Christian nations against the Ottoman power. This war of independence began in Servia in the first years of the new century. It was at first a rising against local tyrants who defied the authorit}' of the sidtan, but it soon became a war of independence. In 1826 the independence of the country was recognised by Turkey, which was only to receive an annual tribute, and for some time retained the right of keeping garri- sons in certain fortresses. The (ireek war of indepen- dence began in 1821. Finding himself unable to sub- due both Greece and Servia, the sultan had to apply for help to his rebellious vassal, pasha Mehemet Ali of Egypt; but the outrages of the Egj'pfians led to an in- terference by England, France, and Russia, who. in 1827, in the treaty of London, agreed to make Greece free; destroyed, in November. 1827, at the battle of Navarino, the Turkish and Egyptian fleet, and compelled the sul- tan to agree to the treaty of London. In the treaty of Adrianople (1829), Turkey had not only to acknowl- edge the independence of Greece, but the almost com- plete independence of Moldavia and Wallachia, whose liospodars thereafter held office for lifetime, and to cede several fortresses on the coast of the Black Sea to Russia. ]\Iahmud II (1808-40) was desirous of in- troducing important reforms, and in 1826 exterminated the Janizaries; but while his reforms did little good to the Christians, they set his Mohammedan subjects
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ai;ainst liim. There were jSrohammedan revolts in Al- Imiiia ami Busiiia, which were put down in l!S;U and ISo'i; Imt more important was the rebellion of Mehemet Ali of Egypt, who concpiered Syria and oilier Asiatic possessions of the sidtan, and seemed to threaten (he very existence of the empire, when (1840) four of the great Christian jiowers of Kurope concluded the treaty of Hiida-resth, and compelled jMehemet Ali to give up his Asiatic conquests. In tlie Crimean war (1853-55), Turkey would jiroliably have been crushed by Kussia but for the interference of England, France, and Sar- dinia in its behalf. By the treaty of peace in 185(), the powers which signed it — France, Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Sardinia — declared that the Sublime Porte, was admitted to partake in the advantages of public law and the European concert. This concession was made to the Porte in recognition of the luttti-hii- miii/itm (Feb. 18, 185(5), a proclamation which promised to the Cliristians equal civil rights, but which the Porte found itself no more able to carry out than a preceding reformatory edict, the kdtti-ti/icii/' o( Gulhane of 1853. The approaching collajise of Turkey became more and more apparent. Terrible massacres of Christians in Damascus and Moinit Lel)aiion led, in IStJO, to a French intervention. In IStU ^Moldavia and Wallachia united themselves, in spite of the treaty of Paris and of the protest of the Porte, into one state, called Poumania. A ixiwerfid impulse was given to tlie aspiration of the Cliristians for freedom by the complete victory of the nationality princi|ile in Italy and (Jermany. As the Italians and Germans had re-established an Italian kingdom and a (ierman empire, thus the (Jreeks of Tur- key expressed a wish for a union with Greece, the Ser- vians began to dream <>f the re-establishment of a large Servian empire, the Bulgarians of a Bulgarian king- dom, the Roumanians of severing the last tie of connec- tion with Turkey. The first movement in this direc- tion was the insurrection in Crete in 1866, which was suppressed in 1869. The powers which had signed the treaty of Paris held a special conference and recognised the demands of the Porte as just. In 1867 the demand of Servia that the Turkish garrisons be withdrawn from all the Servian fortresses was granted. In 1872 the sultan conceded to the khedive of Egypt two important attributes of sovereignty, the direct hereditary succes- sion and the authorization to make loans. On .July 6, 1875, an insurrection broke out in Herzegovina, which gradually kindled the great Eastern war. A series of joint steps were taken by the great powers of Europe to induce the Porte to concede the reform demand- eil by the Christian insurgents. The most important were, the note of count Andrassy of Dec. 30, 1875; the Berlin Memorandum of May 14, 1870; the Constanti- nople Conference from December, 1876, to January,
1877 ; and the London Protocol of March 21, 1877. ()n April 24 Russia declared war, and at the beginning of
1878 Turkey was utterly crushed. In the peace of San Stefano of March 3, 1878, 'J'urkey had to recognise the entire independence of Roumania, Servia, and ISIonte- negro, to cede some additional territory to Servia and Montenegro, and to consent to the establishment of an independent principality of Bulgaria. In the case of Bulgaria, these stipulations were considerably modified by the treaty of Berlin of July 13, 1878, as has already been stated. Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed un- der Austrian administration, and to (Jreece the annex- ation of some (ireek districts in Southern Turkey was promised. The introduction of the reforms formally demanded by the great powers of Europe was again ]iromised, and their execution placed under the guaran- tee of the great powers. A few weeks before (June 4, 1878), Turkey had concluded a secret treaty with Eng- land, which assumed a protectorate over the Asiatic do- minions of the sultan as long as Russia would not return its conquests in Armenia. In return, Cyprus was ])laced under English administration, and the Porte pledged it- self to carry through administrative reforms in the Asi-