atic possessions. Thus Turkey appeared in an entirely helpless condition, and, so far as its European posses- sions were concerned, in a state of total decay. Among the European powers, only one — the Tory government <)fEn<;land — occasionally used its influence in behalf of the Turkish government. The fall of the Tory minis- try in 1880, and the access to power of the Liberal jiar- ty, which, during the war, hail openly expressed its symi)athy with the Christian nationalities of the Bal- kan peninsula, especially with the Greeks, deprived the Mohammedan government of its last hope. As the Turks had been unable to agree with the (ireek gov- ermnent about the promised rectification of frontier, the powers which had signed the treaty of Berlin heJd an- other special conference at Berlin in June, 1880. and designated the districts which, in their ojiinion, should be ceded to Greece. The vital jiower of Turkey ap- ]icars to be exhausted. A constitution drawn up by Midhat Pasha, and proclaimed Dec. 23, 1876, which promised to the population very extensive rights, failed to make any impression either at home or abroad. The Parliament which met in March, 1877, attracted more attention by its novelty than by its work.
III. Xational Characteristics and Governmental Pol- irij. — Comparing Turkey with the other states of Eu- rope, we are struck with one very remarkable distinc- tion. In all the other countries of iMirope the bulk of the people have learned that they have a common coun- try, and that, however widely their opinions may differ, and however much they ma}- dislike the existing gov- ernment, they have important interests in common. The Turks have never become a nation. After subject- ing many tribes of different race and religion, the ex- clusive aim of the sultans has been to keep them in sub- jection, and to extort from them as high a tribute as possible. The efl'ect of Turkey's rule has therefore been most blighting upon every interest of her subjects. Morally, socially, economically, and politically, her de- pendencies have suidi, under the combined influence of a false, fanatical, and sensual religion, a bigoted, selfish, and imbecile regime, and an ignorant, fatalistic, and ef- fete philoso[)hy, to the lowest possible point of civilized communities. Corruption reigns in every department of state, and superstition in every form of society. The ruling class, being Turks and Moslems, feel no sympathy with the natives, who are largely Christian and of differ- ent races from themselves. Extortion, bribery, chican- ery, and treachery have for ages characterized the gov- ernment, until it has become a festering ulcer and a burn- ing shame upon the face of Europe. But for the in- trigues and jealousies among the other European pow- ers, each of which has been anxious to outwit the rest in seizing upon the spoils of "the Sick Man's estate," Turkey would have been dismembered long ago by for- eign interference, or have collapsed in utter ruin by its internal rottenness. England has been largely charge- al)le for maintaining, by her diplomatic policy, this eye- sore and blot upon the map (d' the world.
Several large territories are but verj' loosely con- nected with the empire. Tunis, in Africa, considers it- self as a vassal state of the sultan, but without any defi- nite obligation, not even that of [)aying an annual trib- ute. Formerly there were two other states of this class, Algeria and Tri|ioli; but the former has been conquered by France, and the latter has recently come under the direct authority of the sultan. The vassal states which had only to pay an annual tribute, and were otherwise autonomous, were, in 1878, Roumania and Servia, in Eu- rope; Samos, ill Asia; and Egypt, in Africa. In 1878 I.'oumania and Servia became entirely independent, and Bulgaria was erected into a tributary vassal state. In the autonomous province of Eastern Roitmelia, the pow- er of the sultan has been almost reduced to the right of appointing a governor.
By the old law of succession, which has been left un- changed by the constitution of 1876, the crown is in- herited, according to senioritv, bv the male descendants
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of Othman, sprung from the imperial harem. Tlie harem is considered a permanent State instilnti<in. All children born in the liarem, whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are legitimate and of equal lineage; hut the sultan is succeeded by his eldest son only when there are no uncles or cousins of greater age. It has not been the custom of the sultans for some centuries to contract regular marriages. A special feature attend- ing tlie accession of new sultans to the throne has been the slaughter of brothers and other near kinsfolk who were feared as rivals. Until very recently the will of the sultan was not limited by any law. 'The jirecepts of the Koran were regarded as the fiuidamental law of the empire. The legislative and the executive authority were exercised in the name of tlie sultan by the grand- vizier as head of the temporal government, and the Sheik el-Islam as the head of the Church. The consti- tution of 1876 pretended to make the sultan a constitu- tional monarch, and to provide for the exercise of the legislative and judicial powers after the model of the AVest European states; but the constitution thus far (1880) is almost a dead letter. Several Christians, how- ever, have of late held the position of Minister of State. The tinancial affairs of the government are in a condition of thorough and hopeless disorganization, and the time of the empire's complete dissolution cannot be distant.