Thus the doctrine of the Stoies. like that ol EpicurUS, practically left man to himself. But it was worse in its final results than Epicurism, for it made him hi- own god.
In one point the Epicureans and Stoies were agreed They both regarded the happiness and culture of the individual as the highest good. Both systems belonged to a period of corruption and decay. They were the efforts of the man to support himself in the ruin of the state. But at the same time this assertion of individual independence and breaking down of local connections performed an important work in preparation for Chris- tianity. It was for the Gentile world an influence cor- responding to the Dispersion for the .lews. Men. as men, owned their fellowship as they had not done he- fore. Isolating superstitions were -haltered by the ar- guments of the Epicureans. The unity of the human conscience was vigorously affirmed by the Stoics (comp. Antoninus, iv. 1,33, with Gataker's notes).
Meanwhile in the New Academy Platoiiism degen- erated into scepticism. Epicurus found an authorita- tive rule in the senses. The Stoies took refuge in what , seems to answer to the modern doctrine of ••common- sense," and maintained that the Benses give a direct knowledge of the object. Carneades (B.C. 213 129)
combated these views, and showed that sensation can- not he proved tO declare the real nature, but only some
of the effects, of things. Thus the Blight philosophical ha-isof the later schools was undermined. Scepticism remained as the last i — uo of speculation J and. if we may believe the declaration of Seneca i Qumtt. Nat. vii. 32), scepticism itsell Boon ceased to be taughl as a sys- tem. The -nat teacher- had Bought rest, and in the end they found min-i. No sciena of life could he es- tablished. The reason of the few failed to en ate an esoteric rule of virtue and happiness. For in this they all agreed, that the blessings of philosophy were not for the mass. A "gospel pleached to the poor" was as yet unknown.
I'.i it though the tireek philosophers fell shon of their
highest aim. it needs no words to show the work which they did a- pioneers of a universal Church. They re-
PHILOSOPHY
131
PHILOSOPHY
vealed the wants and the instincts of men with a clear- ness and vigor elsewhere unattainable, for their sight was dazzled by no reflections from a purer faith. Step by step great questions were proposed — fate, provi- dence— conscience, law — the state, the man; and an- swers were given which are the more instructive be- cause they are generally one-sided. The discussions which were primarily restricted to a few, in time influ- enced the opinions of the many. The preacher who spoke of " an unknown God" had an audience who could understand him, not at Athens only or Rome, but throughout the civilized world.
The complete course of philosophy was run before the Christian sera, but there were yet two mixed sys- tems afterwards which offered some novel features. At Alexandria Platonism was united with various elements of Eastern speculation, and for several centuries exer- cised an important influence on Christian doctrine. At Rome Stoicism was vivified by the spirit of the old re- public, and exhibited the extreme Western type of phi- losophy. Of the first nothing can be said here. It arose only when Christianity was a recognised spiritual power, and was influenced both positively and negative- ly by the Gospel. The same remark applies to the ef- forts to quicken afresh the forms of paganism, which found their climax in the reign of Julian. These have no independent value as an expression of original thought; but the Roman Stoicism calls for brief notice from its supposed connection with Christian morality (Seneca, f A.D. 65 ; Epictetus, f A.D. cir. 115; M. Au- relius Antoninus, 121-180). The belief in this connec- tion found a singular expression in the apocryphal corre- spondence of Paul and Seneca, which was widely received in the early Church (Jerome, De Yir. III. xii). And late- ly a distinguished writer (Mill, On Liberty, p. 58, quoted by Stanley, Eastern Ch. lect. vi, apparently with ap- probation) has speculated on the " tragical fact" that Constantine, and not Marcus Aurelius, was the first Christian emperor. The superficial coincidences of Stoicism with the New Test, are certainly numerous. Coincidences of thought, and even of language, might easily be multiplied (Gataker, .1 ntoninus, Praaf. p. xi, etc.), and in considering these it is impossible not to remember that Shemitic thought and phraseology must have exercised great influence on Stoic teaching (Grant, Oxford Essays, 1858, p. 82). But beneath this external resemblance of Stoicism to Christianity, the later Stoics were fundamentally opposed to it. For good and for evil they were the Pharisees of the Gentile world. Their highest aspirations are mixed with the thanks- giving " that they were not as other men are" (comp. A nton. i). Their worship was a sublime egotism. The conduct of life was regarded as an art, guided in indi- vidual actions by a conscious reference to reason {An- ion, iv, 2, 3 ; v, 32). and not a spontaneous process rising naturally out of one vital principle. The wise man, "wrapt in himself" (vii, 28), was supposed to look with perfect indifference on the changes of time (iv, 49) ; and yet beneath this show of independence he was a prey to a hopeless sadness. In words he appealed to the great law of fate, which rapidly sweeps all things into oblivion, as a source of consolation (iv, 2. 14; vi. 15) ; but there is no confidence in any future retribution. In a certain sense the elements of which we are composed are eternal (v, 13), for they are incorporated in other parts of the universe, but we shall cease to exist (iv, 14, 21; vi, 24; vii, 10). Not only is there no recognition of communion between an immortal man and a personal God, but the idea is excluded. Man is but an atom in avast universe, and his actions and sufferings are meas- ured solelv bv their relation to the whole {A nton. x, 5, 6, 20; xii", 26; vi, 45; v, 22; vii, 9). God is but an- other name for "the mind of the universe" (o tov b\ov vovc, v, 30), "the soul of the world" (iv, 40), " the reason that ordereth matter" (vi. 1). " universal nature" (»'/ t&v uXwv (pvaic, vii, 33; ix, 1 ; comp. x, 1), and is even iden- tified with the world itself (rov ytvi^aavroi; Koafiov,