Prayer. The words generally used in the O. T. are f"!i!"!Pl, tchinndh (from the root "j3n, "to incline," " to be gracious," whence in Hithp. " to entreat grace or mercy;" Sept. generally, Sei]mg ; Vulg. deprecatio), and lliSP, tephilldh (from the root ^3, "to judge," whence in Hithp. "to seek judgment ;" Sept. Tzpornvxh ; Vulg. oratio). The latter is also used to express interces- sory prayer. The two words point to the two chief ob- jects sought in prayer, viz. the prevalence of right and truth, and the gift of mercy. A very frequent formula for prayer in the O. T. is the phrase ^n^ C± un|3, to call upon the name of Jehovah. The usual Greek term is £i>YO/x«t, which originally signified only a wish ; but ciopcu, to beg (properly to want), is a frequent ex- pression for prayer.
I. Scriptural History of the Subject. — 1. That prayer was coeval with the fallen race we cannot doubt, and it was in all probability associated with the first sacrifice. The first definite account of its public observance occurs in the remarkable expression recorded in the lifetime of Enos, the son of Seth : " Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord" (Gen. iv, 26). From that time a life of prayer evidently marked the distinction between the pious and the wicked. The habit was maintained in the chosen family of Abraham, as is evi- dent from frequent instances in the history of the He- brew patriarchs. Moses, however, gave no specific commands with reference to this part of religious ser- vice (comp. Spanheim, Ad Callimaeh. Pallad. p. 139; Creuzer, Symbol, i, 164 sq.), and prayer was not by law interwoven with the public worship of God among the Hebrews (but comp. Deut. xxvi. 10, 13, and the prayer of atonement offered by the high-priest, Lev. xvi, 21). We do not know whether, before the exile, prayer was customarily joined with sacrificial offerings (Iliad, i, 450 sq. ; Odys. xiv, 423; Lucian, Dea Syr. 57 ; Curtius, iv, 13, 15; Pliny. //. X. xxviii, 3; see Iamblich, Mysta; v, 26). Yet, at least in morning and evening worship, those present perhaps joined in prayer, either silently or with united voices (see Luke i, 10). About the time of the exile our records begin of the custom of the Le- vites reciting prayers and leading others (1 Chron. xxiii, 30; comp. Neh. xi, 17; Berarh. xxvi, 1; see Otho, Lex. Rab. p. 164). An extraordinary instance of public prayer occurs in 1 Kings viii. 22. We see that prayer as a religious exercise, in the outer court of the sanctuary, though not expressly commanded, was yet supposed and expected. (Psa. cxli, 2; Rev. viii. 3, 4, seem to indicate that incense was a symbol of prayer ; but see Bahr, Symbolik, i, 461 sq.) As private devo- tion prayer was always in general use (comp. Isa. i, 15; Credner, On Joel, p. 192, supposes from Joel ii, 16, and Matt, xviii. 3; xix, 14; Psa. viii, 3, that especial virtue
l'KAYER
474
PRAYER
was ascribed to the prayers of innocent children; but without ground). After the time of the exile prayer came gradually t" be viewed as a meritorious work, an opus opt nihiin. Prayer and fasting were considered tin- two great divisions of personal piety (Tob. xii. 9; Ju- dith iv. 12). Ii was customary to offer prayer before everj great undertaking (Judith xiii. 7: comp. Acts ix, 40; Iliad, ix, 172; xxiv, 308; Py thag. Carmen A ur. ;- : war before a battle (1 Mace, v, 33; xi.71: 2 Mace, xv, 26; comp.viii, 29). Three times a daj was prayer repeated (Dan. vi. 11; comp. Psa. Iv, 18; Tan- i-lunn. i\. l. in Schottgen, //»>•. Bebr. i. 419): namely, at tli*- third hour (9 A.M.. Arts ii. 15, the time of the morning sacrifice in the Temple) ; al mid-day, the sixth hour i 12 M.. x. 9); and in the afternoon, al the ninth hour (3 P.M., the time of the evening sacrifice in the Temple; comp. Dan. ix. 21; Josephus, A,,/, xiv, 4, 3; see also Acts iii, 1 ; k, 30; Thilo, . I pocr. i. 352; Schott- gen, <>/,. cit. p. 418 sq.; Wetetein, ii. 171 |. C pare
the three or four fold repetition of songs of praise by the Egj ptian priests each day I Porphyr. Abstin. iv. 8 i. The Mohammedans, too, are well known to have daily hours of prayer. It was usual, too, before and after eating to utter a form of prayer or thanks (Matt xv,36; John vi, 11 5 Acts xxvii, 35; Philo, Opp. ii. 181; Porphyr. [bstinai. i\. 12; see Kuiniil. I>< /nicinn tint, ,/ post cibum ap. Judfieos et Christ, faciendarum genere, anti- quiiate, etc. [ Lips. I7i'il |). The Pharisees and Essenes especially ascribed great importance to prayer. The former, indeed, made a display of this form of devotion (Matt, vi, 5), and humored their own conceit by mak- ing their prayers very long. See Pqarisi e. Perma- nent forms of prayer were already customary in the time oi Christ (Luke xi. 1), perhaps chiefly the same which are contained in the Mishna, Berachoth (comp. Pirh A both, ii, 13). The Lord's Prayer, too, has sev- eral, though not very important, agreements with the tonus in the Talmud (see Schottgen, i, 160 sq.; Vi- tringa, D< Synag. Vet. p. 962; Otho, Lex. Rab. p. 539; Tholuck, Bergpredigt, p. 337 sq.). Private prayer was practiced bj the Israelites chiefly in retired chambers in their houses (Matt. vi, 6), especially in the "upper room" i I tan. \ i. 11; Judith \ iii. 5; Tob. iii. 12; Acts i, 13; x. '.i i. and on the roof, [f in the open air, an emi- nence was sought for (Malt. xiv. L'o: Mark vi. 46; Luke vi. 12; comp. 1 Kings xviii, 12). The inhabitants oi Jerusalem were fondest of going to the court of the Temple (Luke xviii. 10; Ac's iii. I; comp. Isa. hi. 7: