(4.) Volcanic Tuff. — In 1844 an account was pub- lished by M. Aymard of the discovery of the remains of two human beings imbedded in a volcanic tuff eject- ed, during its last eruption, by the mountain of Denise, in Le Puy, Central France. In ejections of the same age have been found remains of the cave-hyena and a hippopotamus.
(5.) Peat Bogs. — The peat bogs of Denmark, ranging from ten to thirty feet in depth, have afforded a large quantity of human remains, mingled with those of ani- mals contemporary with man (Morlot, Etudes Geologico- archeologiques en Danemark et en Suisse). In the lowest portion of the bogs are found remains of the Scotch fir, a tree no longer growing in Denmark; and with these are associated implements of flint. Above are found remains of the common oak, now very rare in Denmark, and associated therewith implements and ornaments of bronze, as well as stone; while in the still newer peat occur remains of the existing becchen forest, mingled with relics of an age of iron. The bogs of Ireland have been similarly productive, affording, among other things, many skeletons of the great Irish elk. From the bogs of the Somme, newer than the river-drifts, many human relics have been exhumed, as well as from those in the neighborhoods of Brussels and Antwerp.
(6.) Kitchen - middens (Danish kjukkenmuddiiiff). — These are heaps of earth and human relics occurring along the Baltic shore of Denmark. They vary in height from three to ten feet, and some are 150 to 200 feet wide, and 1000 feet long. They are largely made up of the shells of the oyster, cockle, and other edible mollusks, but. plentifully mixed with the bones of vari- ous quadrupeds, birds, and fish, which seem to have served as food for rude sea-side inhabitants. Inter- spersed with the animal remains are flint knives, hatch- ets, and other instruments of stone, horn, wood, and bone, with fragments of coarse pottery, mixed with
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charcoal and cinders, but never with implements of bronze or iron. The stone hatchets and knivi theless, have been polished and sharpened by grinding, and are thus Less rude than those of the river-drifts and many of tin- caverns. Kitchen-middens also occur in England, Scotland, France, the United States, and other countries.
V. p. similar are the refuse-heaps (" terramares" i far- ther inland, accumulated (according to a custom BtiU prevailing in Ecuador, Mexico, and other Spanish coun- tries) upon the outskirts of ancient palustrine villages in the north of Italy. They embrace, naturally, relics of everything pertaining to t lie life of the ancient vil- lagers, including implements for weaving, mill-stones, ami spear-heads, hatchets, and ornaments of bronze. They occur especially over the plain bounded by the Po, the Apennines, the Adda, and the Reno (Strobel and Pigorini, Les Terramares et lea Pilotages du Par- mesan, Milan, 1864). Similar palustrine settlements have recently been discovered in .Moravia and Meck- lenburg. Thej are said to exisl also on the coasts of Africa and Brazil, Certain mounds along the coasts of Holland, containing Roman and Carthaginian antiqui- ties, seem to have served as earthworks, or places of refuge.
(7.) Megaliths and Tumuli. — Rude structures of huge rough stones, whose origin is fixed in the night of pre- historic times, are known to exist in nearly all the countries of Europe, and even of Asia, and were long regarded as druidical remains. Those called "dol- mens" consist of a huge more or less Battened rock, resting on stones planted upright in the ground — the supposed stone-altars of the Cauls. Sometimes a series of massive slabs rests on two lines of upright stones, so arranged as to form a covered passage. In other cases the entire dolmen is covered to the depth of several feel by earth, and thus becomes a tumulus-dolmen. nuli enclose two or more stone-covered pas- sages, l he passages seem to have been burial-crypts, fur we often find within them human skeletons placed originally in a sitting posture. In one tomb hundreds mis were discovered. Sometimes the crypts are divided into numerous compartments, each contain- ing a skeleton. With the skeletons were deposited weapon- and implements (generally of .-ton- i and earth- en vessels. The pottery was of a finer character than thai of the kitchen-middens (Leguay, Sepultures d( VAgt </■ la Pierre, 1865). Some of the tumulus- attain colossal proportions. That of Silbury Hill, England, is nearly 200 feet high. The Egyptian pyramids belong properly in this connection. See Stoni .
lie' structure known as a "cromlech" i- a dolmen surrounded by one or more circles of stones planted like posts in the ground. Cromlechs occur singly or in groups. These erect, roughly hewn stones are known
as ■■menhirs," and also occur either singly or in long
parallel ranges, as al Carnac, in Brittany. Thousands
of the various suits of megalithic structures are known
iii Brittanj and the Bouth ami south-wist of Prance, in England, in Denmark, and. in less abundance, in all the other countries of Europe, except Southern Germany, Spain. Italy, Greece, the Danuliian principalities, and Russia.
(8.) Lake-dwellings. The pile-habitations (JPala- fittes, Pfahlbauten) were cabins erected on piles in the bottoms of lakes. First discovered and most abundant in tin- lakes (,f Switzerland il>e-or. Palajittes, ou Con- structions Lacustres du Lac di Neuchatel; Troyon, Ha- bitations Lacustres </'.-■ Temps tnirl, ,<* ,/ modernes), they are now known in the existing and the peat-rilled lakes of several other countries (the Italian lakes Tarese and M ami Herodotus (lib. iv,