quently makes its ferocious assaults on the yet living victim. — Kitto; Smith: Fairbairn. See Wood, Bible Animals, p. 439 sq. ; Tristram, Nat. Hist, of the Bible, p. 198 sq.
Ravenna, an important city of Central Italy, forty- three miles east-southeast from Bologna, and four and a half miles from the Adriatic, with a population of nearly 60,000 people, was once the capital of the em- pire (from A.U. 401), and is not only a very ancient city, whose history is of great interest to Christianity on account of its early relation to the Church, but more particularly on account of the different ecclesiastical councils which have been held there, and the disputes which the metropolitanate of Ravenna maintained in early mediaeval days with the bishopric of Rome, espe- cially in the 7th century, under Constans (600), in the 8th against pope Hadrian, and in the 9th, when in 861 the strife was finally put at rest at a synod in Rome. Aside from the council of bishops in 419, called by Ib>- norius to decide upon the choice of popes between Boni- face and Eulalius, the following councils of Ravenna (Concilia Ravennata) are noteworthy:
(I.) Held July 22, 877, by pope John VIII, at the head of forty-nine bishops (Holstenius and Labbe say the number of bishops was 130). The object of this council was to remedy the disorders of the Church. Nineteen chapters remain to us, relating to the disci- pline and privileges of the Church ; also a letter con- firming the possession of a monastery to the bishop of Autiui.
Chap. 1. Enjoins the metropolitan to send to Rome for the pallium within three months after his consecration, and forbids him to exercise auy of the functions of his of- fice until that be done.
2. Enjoins that all bishops elect shall be consecrated by their metropolitans within three months after election, under pain of excommunication.
3. Forbids metropolitans to make use of the pallium ex- cept on great festivals and during mass.
5, C, 7, and 8. Excommunicate and anathematize those who rob the Church, injure ecclesiastics, and commit va- rious other crimes.
9. Declares those persons to be themselves excommuni- cated who voluntarily communicate with the excommu- nicated.
12. Excommunicates those who absent themselves from their parish church on three Sundays successively.
lit. Forbids judges and royal commissioners to hold courts and to lodge in churches. —Labbe, Concil. ix, 299.
(II.) Held in 898 (or 904, according to Labbe) by John IX, in the matter of Formosus and Stephen ; the emperor Lambert being present and seventy-four bish- ops. Ten regulations were approved.
1. Enacts the observation of the canons of the fathers, and all that is contained in the capitularies of Charle- magne, Louis le Dehonnaire, Lothaire, and Louis II.
:;. Confirms the privileges granted to the Church of Rome by the emperors.
4. Approves all that had been done in the Council of Rome, A.D. SOS, in the matter of Formosus.
5. (3, 7, 8, 0, and 10. Relate to the political circumstan- ces of the Roman see.
— Labbe, Concil. ix, 507.
(III.) Held in April, 967. In this council the em- peror, Otho I, yielded to the pope, John XIII, the city and territory of Ravenna. Heroldus, archbishop of Salzburg, was deposed and excommunicated; the act of deposition being subscribed on April 25 by the em- peror and fifty-seven bishops, including the pope. Last- ly, Magdeburg was erected into an archbishopric : this, however, was not completed until the following year.— Labbe, Concil. ix, 674.
(IV.) Held May 1, 997, by Gerbert, archbishop of Ravenna, and eight suffragans. Three canons remain, of which
1. Condemns an infamous custom which existed in the cathedral of Raveuna of selling the holy eucharist and chrism. — Labbe, Concil. ix. 766.
(V.) Held April 30, 1014, by the new archbishop, Ar- nold, to remedy the abuses caused by the long vacancy of eleven years, and the intrusion of Adalbert, who had
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unlawfully conferred holy orders and dedicated certain churches. It was determined that those upon whom orders had been thus conferred should remain suspended until the matter could be minutely considered ; and that the consecrations of churches and oratories made by Adalberl were null and void. — Labbe, Condi. ix. 833.
(VI.) Held bj Peter, cardinal of St. Anastasia, in 1128. Hire the patriarchs of Aquileia and Venice, or Grade, were deposed, having been convicted of favoring schismatics. Pagi; Labbe, Concil. x, 936.
i VII.) Held in L286, July 8, by Bonifacius the arch- bishop, who presided, assisted by eighl bishops, his suf- Nine canons were published.
2. Exhorts the clergy to almsgiving, and grants indul- ges es to those who feed and clothe the poor.
3. Relates to the dress of the clergy j and forbids tliem to carry anus without the bishop's permission.
5. Orders that the usual daily distributions shall be made only to those canons who attend the holy office.
—Labbe, Concil. xi. 1238.
(VIII.) Held in 1310 by Rainaldus the archbishop. in the mailer ,,r the Templars. Present, eighl bishops of the province, three inquisitors, two preaching friars, and one -Minorite: seven Templars were brought before them, who constantly affirmed their innocence. < hi the following day it was determined thai they who bad confessed from a fear of torture only should be consid- ered innocent; nevertheless, there were five who went through the canonical ordeal.— Labbe. Concil. \i. 1633.