The success of the Reformation in these two fiefs en- couraged its friends in Poland proper. King Sigis- mund, who died in 1548, was opposed to Protestantism, but unable to arrest its progress. His son, Sigismund Augustus, favored the Reformation, entered into negoti- ations with Calvin, and granted religious liberty to the cities of Dantzie, Thorn, and Elbing. Notwithstand- ing the utmost efforts made by the national Catholic party, with bishop Hosius at its head, the Diet of Pe- trikow, in 1565, demanded a national council for the express purpose of introducing priestly marriage, the Lord's supper under both kinds, and other reforms. In 1583 an edict of religious toleration was passed, but in the next year Hosius caused the adoption of the decrees of the Council of Trent by the diet, and in 1565 the Jesuits who were called by him established their first college. The progress of the counter-reformation which now set in was greatly aided by the divisions existing among the Protestants. The Reformed effected a na- tional organization in 1547; the Lutherans in 1565. The Bohemians retained their separate Church consti- tution, and the Unitarians, who had able leaders in Ladius Socinus, Blandrata, and Occhino, became likewise numerous. In 1570 the Reformed. Lutherans, and Bo- hemians agreed at the Synod of Sandomir upon a gen- eral confession to which all three could subscribe, but which left room for the retention by each Church of its doctrinal peculiarities. This Protestant union proved sufficiently strong to secure in 1573 the adoption of a general religious treaty, which guaranteed equal rights to Catholics and Protestants. A strong reaction against Protestantism began under king Stephen Bathori (1586 to 1587). His successor, Sigismund HI, by conferring offices and dignities exclusively upon Catholics, induced many nobles to renounce Protestantism. In 1717 the erection of new Protestant churches was forbidden, and in 1733 the Protestants were excluded from all public offices. The increasing persecution of all non-Catholics led finally to the interference of Prussia and Russia, and to the partition of Poland.
X. Protestantism in Italy, Spain, and France. — 1. In Italy the revival of the classical studies and the obser- vation of the corrupt condition of the ruling Church had diffused among the educated and literary classes a widespread contempt not only of the Catholic Church, but of Christianity in general. The friends of a refor-
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mation of the Church had, however, organized societies
in K c Venice, and other cities, and the writings of
the German and Swiss Reformers met therefore with a great deal of sympathy in all parts of Italy. < me party of Italian reformers, which counted among it s members Beveral cardinals, as Contarini and Pole, was averse to a separation from the Church, and hoped for an evangel- ical regeneration of the old Church. Another party came oul in favor of a thorough reformation, first in Ferrara (under the protection of the duchess Renata, a French princess), then in Modenaand many other cities. A prominent centre oi reformatory movements was sub- sequently in the city of Naples, where the Spanish no- 1.1. man Juan Valdez displayed a remarkable activity, and where two of the greatest preachers of Italy — Ber- nardino Occhino, the general of the Capuchins, and the learned Augustinian Peter Martyr Vermigli — wore gained for the Reformation. Translations of the princi- pal writings of German and Swiss Reformers, mostly under assumed names, found a wide circulation, and the Italian reformers themselves published a large number of writings, the most celebrated of which is the work entitled On tin Benefit of r/,,i.<t. Under Paul III the evangelical < latholics, like Contarini and his friends, had for a time a leading influence upon the government of the Church: hut in 1542 a decided reaction began when the pope, by the advice of cardinal Caraffa, who had for- merly been a friend of Contarini, appointed an inquisi- tion for the. suppression of Protestantism. Many ofthe leading friends of the Reformation tied to foreign coun- tries; among them Occhino, Vermigli, Vergerio (bishop of i apo d' [stria), and Caraccioli, a nephew of cardinal Caraffa. When Caraffa became pope, under the name of Paul IV, the persecution extended also to the Cath- olics of evangelical sentiments, including a number of cardinals and bishops. Under Paul V an I mix Libro- rii in Prohibitorum led to the suppression of all literature friendly to Protestantism. Protestantism in Italy, as in other countries, had been divided into Lutheranism and Calvinism, with a prevailing inclination to the lat- ter: and And -Trinitarian followers of Servetus bad likewise become numerous, although they had to keep their opinions secret. The division of the Protestants weakened their power of resistance, and before the end of the century the Inquisition had destroyed all ves- tiges of Protestant communities. Among the distin- guished martyrs ofthe Reformation were Carnesecchi and Palearius; two Waldensian congregations in Cala- bria were rooted out in a terrible massacre.
2. The union of Spain under one ruler with Germany
and the Netherlands facilitated the introduction ofthe
writings of the German Reformers. Besides, from
Beam, which was wholly Protestant, the doctrines of the Swiss Reformation spread into Aragon. Seville and Valladolid became tin. chief seats of the Refor- mation. Diego <le Valera, John Egidius, Ponce de la Fuente (all of Seville). Alfonso and Juan Valdez, and Augustine Castalla were among its prominent friends. Francis Fnzonas and Juan Perez translated the Bible. From fear of the Inquisition, the Spanish Protestants never ventured to constitute congregations; the Inqui- sition, nevertheless, discovered them, and exterminated them with merciless cruelty. In 1570 Protestantism was regarded as fully extinct.