§ 1. INTKODUCTION AND GENERAL VIEW. 1
Roman empire was represented, and fixed its articles of faith in an authoritative way.
Now also, however, the lines of orthodoxy were more and more strictly drawn ; freedom of inquiry was restricted ; and all departure from the state-church system was met not only, as formerly, with spiritual weapons, but also with civil punishments. So early as the fourth century the dominant party, the orthodox as well as the heterodox, with help of the imperial authority practised deposition, confiscation, and banishment upon its opponents. It was but one step thence to th<3 penalties of torture and death, which were ordained in the middle age, and even so lately as the middle of the seventeenth century, by state-church authority, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, and continue in many countries to this day, ao-ainst religious dissenters of every kind as enemies to the prevailing order of things. ^Absolute freedom of religion and of worship is in fact logically impossible on the state-church system. ^ It requires the separation of the spiritual and temporal powers. Yet, from the very beginning of ecclesiasticopolitical persecution, loud voices rise against it and in behalf of religious toleration ; though the plea always comes from the oppressed party, which, as soon as it gains the power, is generally found, in lamentable inconsistency, imitating the violence of its former oppressors. Tlie protest springs rather from the sense of personal injury, than from horror of the principle of persecution, or from any clear apprehension of the nature of the gospel and its significant words : " Put up thy sword into the sheath ; " " My kingdom is not of this world."
^The organization of the church adapts itself to the political and geographical divisions of the empire. The powers of the hierarchy are enlarged, the bishops become leading ofiicers of the state and acquire a controlling influence in civil and political affairs, though more or less at the expense of their spiritual dignity and independence, especially at the Byzantina court. The episcopal system passes on into the metropolitan and patriarchal. In the fifth century the patriarchs of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem stand at the head of Christendom. Among these Rome and Constanti-
S THIKD PERIOD. A.D. 311-590.
riople arc tlie most powerful rivals, and the lioman patriarclr already puts forth a claim to universal spiritual supremacy which subsequently culminates in the mediaeval papacy though limited to the AVest and resisted by the constant protest of the Greek church and of all non-Catholic sects. In addition to provincial synods we have now also general synods, bat called by the emperors and more or less affected, though not controlled, by political influence.
From the time of Constantine church discipline declines ; the whole Roman world having become nominally Christian, and the host of hypocritical professors multiplying beyond all control. Yet the firmness of Ambrose with the emperor Theodosius shows, that noble instances of discipline are not altogether wanting.
Worship appears greatly enriched and adorned ; for art now comes into the service of the church. A Christian architecture, a Christian sculpture, a Christian painting, music, and poetry arise, favoring at once devotion and solemnity, and all sorts of superstition and empty display. The introduction ol religious images succeeds only after long and violent opposition. The element of priesthood and of myster}^ is develoi)ed, but in connection with a superstitious reliance upon a certain magical operation of outward rites. Church festivals are multiplied and celebrated with great pomp ; and not exclusively in honor of Christ, but in connection with an extravagant veneration of martyrs and saints, which borders on idolatry, and often reminds us of the heathen hero-worship not yet uprooted from the general mind. The multiplication and accumulation of religious ceremonies impressed the senses and the imagination, but prejudiced simplicity, spirituality, and fervor in the worship of God. Hence also the beginnings of reaction against ceremonialism and formalism.
ISTotwitlistanding the complete and sudden change of the social and political circumstances of the church, which meets us on the threshold of this period, we have still before us the natural, necessary continuation of the pre-Cunstantine church in its light and shade, and the gradual transition of tl e old