RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baptism
practise, however, these theoretical distinctions were never strictly kept apart. Tertullian required that as a rule only the bishop, or a presbyter or deacon delegated by him, should perform the act of baptism; only in case of necessity was a layman authorized to perform it (De baptismo, xvii). Cyprian goes so far as to say that a priest (sacerdos) " must " (oportet) " purify and hallow " the water (EpisL, lxx, 1).
In the fourth century the doctrine of baptism was treated by Cyril of Jerusalem in his third catechetical lecture (MPG, xxxiii, 425 sqq.), by Gregory Nazianzen in his " Discourse on Holy Baptism " (Orat., xl, MPG, xxxvi, 360 sqq.), and by Gregory of Nyssa (" Greater
2. Fourth Catechetical Oration," xl, MPG, xlv, Century. 101; and " Address to those who
Postpone Baptism," MPG, xlvi, 1). Both Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory Nazianzen desire an " early " baptism, at any rate no " procrastination." Baptism is here spoken of as a power of prime importance as an aid to man in his temptations. It is so necessary that even a child can not be saved without it. Gregory Nazianzen " recommends '' that a child shall be baptized in the " third year of his life. " That, in spite of the opposition to which Tertullian witnesses, baptism of children became soon more and more a general custom, is evident from the fact that Origen (" On Romans," bk. v) considers it an apostolic tradition. The motive for its enforcement differs with different authors. In fact, the general notions as to the meaning of baptism vary so widely that there was evidently not yet any recognized " church doctrine " in the strict sense of the word. Not a few ideas from the analogous rites of pagan mysteries crept into the teaching of theologians.
The first who developed a really dogmatic theory
of baptism was Augustine, under the stress of his
controversy with the Donatists (see Heretic
Baptism). His most important early
3. Augus- writing on the subject is the comtine. prehensive work De baptismo contra
Donatistas libri vii (MPL, xliii), with which may be coupled the smaller treatise De unico baptismo contra Petilianum (ibid. ) . He makes a sharp distinction between sacr amentum and res sacramenti. It is possible, according to him, to obtain the sacramentum without the res, the grace of which the sacrament is a sign. He also taught originally that one might obtain the res without the sacramentum, but later he abandoned this view, at least in regard to baptism. The older he grew, the more firmly he was convinced that baptism was indispensable for salvation, since men could be saved only within the Church, to which baptism was the only entrance. It is true, he was thinking in this connection primarily of adults; but even in their case he was of the opinion that God would be gracious if by any chance a catechumen should die without baptism by no fault of his own. Later, however, he believed that even children dying unbaptized could not be saved, although they would meet only the smallest degree of condemnation (cf. De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de bap-
tismo parvulorum libri Hi, MPL, xliv). In the controversy with Pelagius, Augustine had frequent occasion to deveiop and justify his views on the baptism of children (cf. especially his Epist. ad Dardanum, Epist., clxxxvii, MPL, xxxiii). It was Auguitine especially who developed the theory that baptism had reference to original sin. It is true he laid more emphasis originally on sin in general than on original sin as the obstacle to be removed by baptism. But the more the idea of the baptism of children began to occupy his mind, so much the more original sin became the central point of his interest, coupled with the question of the importance to be attached to faith in connection with baptism. He taught not that the children themselves had faith, but that the faith of the Church benefited them. Since the Church presents the children to God in baptism, making a confession of faith in their stead, God grants them real forgiveness and power for a real " conversion of the heart " when they grow older (cf. especially his Epist. ad Bonifacium, Epist., xcviii, MPL, xxxiii). But at this point his views on predestination come in, and with them his distinctions within the sacrament, according to which baptism does not suffice for salvation if one is not predestined.
2. Roman Catholic and Eastern Teaching: Scholasticism on the whole only elaborated and systematized the doctrine of Augustine (cf. Peter Lombard, Sent., IV, dist. iii-vii, and Thomas Aqui-
i. Scholas- nas, Summa, III, quast. lxvi-lxxi). The ticism and views expressed in the Catechismus
Later Ro- Romanus (part II, chap, ii) and in Belman Cathol- larmine's treatise De baptismo (Dispuicism. tationes de controversiis Christiana fidei, II, ii, 1) rest upon the same basis. It became customary among the scholastics to explain the doctrine of the sacraments by the distinction of the conceptions materia and forma. Everything in the sacrament rests upon divine institution and therefore can not be altered even by the authority of the Church. The Church can not abolish a sacrament, and is bound to observe its matter and form, but may be assured of possessing and transmitting everything that the sacrament ought to contain and offer according to the divine will. If matter and form are properly connected, the sacrament produces its effects ex opere operato. The matter of baptism is water only; its form is the words, " I baptize thee in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost." In baptism all sins are forgiven, in the child original sin, in adults actual sins also. With special reference to original sin Thomas teaches that it is taken away only reatu, i.e., in regard to its guilt (which is great enough to exclude one from the bliss of heaven), but not actu. The latter expression means that " concupiscence " still remains as a " tinder " (fomes) from which at any moment sin may be kindled into flame. Peter Lombard emphasizes the idea that natural concupiscence is "weakened." The Council of Trent (Sessio V) teaches that it is not sin in the proper sense. Real conversion follows baptism, but rests partly upon the grace which it bestows and which only needs to be used by our free will. Great significance is
Baptism