THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
16S1); the Christian Directory (1673) contains the practical part of his system; and Catholic Theology (1675) is an English expo- His sition. His theology made Baxter
Theology, very unpopular among his contemporaries and caused a split among the Dissenters of the eighteenth century. As summarized by Thomas W. Jenkyn, it differed from the Calvinism of Baxter's day on four points: (1) The atonement of Christ did not consist in his suffering the identical but the equivalent punishment (i.e., one which would have the same effect in moral government) as that deserved by mankind because of offended law. Christ died for sins, not persons. While the benefits of substitutionary atonement are accessible and available to all men for their salvation, they have in the divine appointment a special reference to the subjects of personal election. (2) The elect were a certain fixed number determined by the decree without any reference to their faith as the ground of their election; which decree contemplates no reprobation but rather the redemption of all who will accept Christ as their Savior. (3) What is imputed to the sinner in the work of justification is not the righteousness of Christ but the faith of the sinner himself in the righteousness of Christ. (4) Every sinner has a distinct agency of his own to exert in the process of his conversion. The Baxterian theory, with modifications, was adopted by many later Presbyterians and Congregationalists in England, Scotland, and America (Isaac Watts, Philip Doddridge, and many others).
Bibliography: Baxter's Practical Works were collected by W Orme and published in 23 vols., London, 1830; "vol. i contains Orme's Life and Times of Richard Baxter, published separately in 2 vols., the same year; a table of the contents of this edition of Baxter's works is found in Darling's Cyclopaedia Bibliographica, pp. 205-208, London, 1854; the Practical Works appeared also in 4 vols., ib. 1847; and Select Practical Writings, ed. L. Bacon, 2 vols., New Haven, 1844. An Annotated List of the Writings of R. Baxter is appended to the ed. of What Must we do to be Saved t by A. B. Grosart, London, 1868. The chief source for a life is the autobiographical material left to M. Sylvester, who published it as Reliquiae Baxterianm, London, 1696, abridged by E. Calamy, 1702, this enlarged and republished in 2 vols., 1713. A notable paper on Baxter by Sir James Stephen, originally published in the Edinburgh Review, is to be found in his Essays, vol. ii, London, 1860. Among the biographies may be mentioned A. B. Grosart, Representative Nonconformists, II, Richard Baxter, ib. 1879; G. D. Boyle, Men Worth Remembering, Richard Baxter, ib. 1883; J. Stalker, Richard Baxter, Edinburgh, 1883; DNB, iii, 429-437; J. H. Davies, Life of Richard Baxter, London, 1887. The account of his trial is given by Macaulay in his History of England, vol. ii. Consult also Baxter's Making Light of Christ, with an Essay on his Life, Ministry and Theology, by T. W. Jenkyn, London, 1846.
BAYLE, bel, PIERRE: French Protestant; b. at Carla (11 m. w. of Pamiers), department of Ariege, Nov. 18, 1647; d. at Rotterdam Dec. 28, 1706. He was the son of a Calvinist clergyman, and, in 1666, began his studies at the Protestant Academy at Puylaurens, whence he went to the University of Toulouse in 1669. Not satisfied with the objections of the Reformed against the dogma of a divinely appointed judge in matters of faith, he became a Roman Catholic. He spent eighteen months at the Jesuits' College in Toulouse,
and then returned to Protestantism and went to Geneva (1670), where, living as a tutor in private families, he studied theology as well as the Cartesian philosophy. His friendship with Jacques Basnage and Minutoli began there. Later he accompanied pupils to Rouen and in 1675 to Paris. Then he spent several years as a lecturer on philosophy at Sedan; when that academy was closed by order of the king (1681), he accepted an appointment as lecturer on philosophy at the " Ecole illustre " of Rotterdam. In this refuge of liberty, Bayle wrote most of his works. The revocation of tiie Edict of Nantes raised his indignation, and several of the best Protestant works called forth by that disgraceful piece of policy proceeded from the pen of Bayle. The conclusion at which he arrives by his close reasoning is: that matters of belief should be outside the sphere of the State as such — a dangerous principle for Catholicism, and the book was at once put on the Index. Even among Protestants Bayle had adversaries. Jurieu, his jealous and violent opponent at Rotterdam, considered toleration equal to indifference, and reproached Bayle with dangerous skepticism, which made his position very difficult. He tried for an appointment in Berlin. But the realization of this wish was prevented by the death of the great Elector Frederick William. Jurieu continued his attacks and even went so far as to represent Bayle as. the head of a party working into the hands of Louis XIV by aiming at a split between the princes allied against France. William III gave credence to this and influenced the magistrate of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his position (1693). From that time he lived for his literary work, chiefly bearing on philosophy and the history of literature. His Dictionnaire historique et critique [(2 vols. in. three parts Rotterdam, 1697; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1702; 11th ed., 16 vols., Paris, 1820-24; Eng. transl., 5 vols., London, 1734-38)] was most favorably received by all the learned men of Europe, though it brought on him a revival of the reproach of skepticism, of want of respect for the Holy Scriptures, even of Manicheism. Called to justify himself before a commission appointed by the presbytery of Rotterdam, he was treated with great moderation, and consented to change some of the offensive articles, which appeared in their new form in the second edition of his Dictionnaire. Accusations against him came up again from time to time, and he tried to refute them in minor philosophical works. Besides the Dictionnaire his works include: Lettres a M. L. D. A. C, docteur en Sorbonne, oil il est prouve que les cometes ne sont point le presage d'aucun malheur (Cologne, 1682); Critique generate de I'Histoire du Calvinisme de M. Maimbourg (Amsterdam, 1682); Recueil de quelques pieces concernant la philosophic de M. Descartes (Amsterdam, 1684); Nouvelles de la Republique des lettres (1684- 1687); Ce que e'est quela France toute catholique sous le regne de Louis-le-Grand (St. Omer, 1685)- Commentaire philosophique sur ces paroles de V C ' "Contrains-lesd'entrer" (Amsterdam, 1686) • Itcponse de I'auteur des Nouvelles de la Republique des lettres en faveur du P Malebranche sur les plaisirs des sens (Rotterdam, 1686); Avis important aux refu-