THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
without the critical marks. At last Jerome translated the Psalms from the Hebrew at the suggestion of Sophronius about 392 (not 405, as Lagarde has it); but this remained a private labor and is not found in many manuscripts. The best edition of this version is Lagarde's Psalterium juxta Hebrwos Hieronymi (Leipsic, 1874).
About the same time with his second revision of the Psalter Jerome revised the translation of Job (preserved in a few manuscripts, especially at Oxford and St. Gall; edited by Lagarde, Mittheilungen, ii, 189 sqq.; cf. Caspari, in Actes du huiticme congres des Orientalistes, i, Leyden, 1893, 37-51) and most of the books of the Old Testament; but he lost the work " by the deceit of somebody." Therefore he undertook the greater labor of translating the Old Testament afresh direct from the Hebrew. He began in 390 with Samuel and Kings and published them with his Prologus galeatus (q.v.); then followed Job, the Prophets, and Psalms. About the chronological order of the rest absolute certainty is not reached.1 He left Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Maccabees, and Baruch without revision. According to his own statement he translated the three Solomonic writings in three days, Tobit in one day, Judith in one night; for the latter two his Jewish teacher translated to him the Aramaic into Hebrew and he dictated the Latin to a copyist (cf. G. Grtitzmacher, Hieronymus, i, Leipsic, 1901, 73-77 On Jerome's method, cf. G. Hoberg, De S. Hieronymi ratione inter •pretandi, Bonn, 1886; M. Rahmer, Die hebrdischen Traditionen in den W eric en des Hieronymus, Breslau, 1861).
At first Jerome's work was not well received, especially because he had dared to part with the Septuagint, which even Augustine believed to be equally inspired with the original Hebrew. An African bishop on finding hedera 3- History ("ivy") in the Book of Jonah in the new version instead of the accus-
to the Invention of
Printing-, tomed cucurbita (" gourd ") raised a tumult in his Church. Jerome's former friend Rufinus wrote expressly against the new work. " So great is the force of established usage," says Jerome, " that even acknowledged corruptions [of text] please the greater part, for they prefer to have their copies pretty rather than correct." On the other hand he knows " that they attack it in public and read it in secret." At the time of his death (420) the attacks and criticism of his opponents had ceased.
We are not informed where and when complete Bibles of Jerome's version were first produced and introduced into the use of the Church. In Spain it seems to have been at a pretty early time. Cassiodorus (d. about 570) was one of the first, if not the very first, who took care to produce correct copies. From his copies are derived the introductory pieces in the Codex Amiatinus (cf. H. J. Whjte, in Studio. Biblica, ii, Oxford, 1890, 273; P. Corssen, Die Bibeln des Cassiodorius, JPT, 1883, 1891).
i White gives the following table: 394 Esdras; 396 Chronicles; 39>S Proverbs, Erclesiastes, Song of Solomon; 401? Genesis, followed by Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; 405 Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Esther, Tobit, Judith, and the apocryphal parts of Daniel and Esther.
Pope Gregory the Great wrote at the end of the sixth century: " I indeed circulate the new translation; but when the course of argument demands it, I use now the new and now the old by way of proof; and this because the Apostolic See, over which under God I preside, uses both and by the study of both my toil is lightened." By that time the nameVulgata ("common," "ordinary "), which before had meant the Septuagint and its Latin translation, had gone over to the work of Jerome. Ko^er Bacon says of it "that [version] which is diffused among the Latins is that which the Church receives in these days." But even in the printed editions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries this name is not yet as invariable as we are inclined to suppose; and despite the warning of Walafrid Strabo, " let none desire to amend one from the other," mixing in all degrees of the old and the newtexts took place and survives up to the present not only in manuscripts, but even in the printed text, as when in II Kings i, 18, the first part is from the Old Latin, and the second from Jerome.
Charlemagne found several recensions in use in his dominions. In a capitulary of 789 he ordered that there should be " in each monastery and parish good copies of the catholic books, and the boys must not be permitted to deface them either in reading them or by writing on them; and if there be necessity for writing [copying] a Gospel, Psalter, or Missal, men of maturity are to do it, using all care." In 797 he committed to Alcuin (q.v.) the " emendation of the Old and the New Testament"; and the copy of the Biblical books, "bound together in the sanctity of one most glorious body," which Alcuin offered to him en Christmas 801, must have been the first copy of this revision, of which the Codex Vallicellanus at Rome is the best representative in existence. As Alcuin was himself of Northumbria, he probably had his text brought from there, and fortunately just there the purest text seems to have survived (cf. Berger's Histoire and Wordsworth- White). At the same time Bishop Theodulf of Orleans (787-821) worked at a revision, but on very different lines. Being a Visigoth, he took Spanish manuscripts as the basis, but incorporated in the margins various readings; fortunately his work found no large circulation. It is still represented by some fine manuscripts (cf. Berger, 145-1S4, and Delisle, in Biblioihcque de VEcole des Chartes, vol. xl, Paris, 1879). About the labors of Lanfranc of Canterbury (q.v.) precise information is not obtainable; but the normal copy produced with the help of Jewish scholars by Stephen Harding, third abbot of Citeaux, for the members of his order is still preserved at Dijon (cf. J. P Martin, in RSE, 1SS7>. Later on, critical observations on the true readings of certain passages were collected in the so-called Correctoria Biblica. The principal Correctoria are (1) the Correctorium Parisicnse, prepared about 1236, also called Senonense, sneered at by Roger Bacon, who in 1267 called the Parisian text, in a letter to Pope Clement IV, "horribly corrupt"; "the correctors," he says, are " corruptors, for any reader whatsoever in the lower orders corrects as he pleases, in like manner also the preachers, and similarly the students change as they like what they