THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
resented, especially in the maritime towns, where there are English churches, which, however, do not always have permanent rectors. The Presbyterians, particularly from North America, have settled in considerable numbers in Sao Paulo, where they have established a college, and the American Seaman's Friend Society has an agent in the capital, Rio de Janeiro. In 1899 the Protestant Episcopal Church made the Rev. Lucien Lee Kinsolving (q.v.) bishop of southern Brazil, with residence at Rio Grande do Sul (Silo Pedro). In 1907 his diocese was made an integral part of the American Episcopal Church.
German Protestantism is represented over an extensive territory and has numerous centers, as is shown by the existence of two great ecclesiastical bodies, the " Evangelical German Synod," subject to the jurisdiction of the higher church council of Berlin since 1869, and the " Evangelical Synodical Union " of 1884. The latter receives its clergy not only from Berlin, but also through the missionary societies of Barmen and Basel, especially in view of the number of Swiss immigrants to Brazil. Many German evangelical communities, as well as scattered members of the Evangelical Church are found both in Rio de Janeiro itself and the state of the same name (including Petropolis) and the state of Espirito Santo (including Leopoldina), and especially in the four eouthern states of Sao Paulo, Parand, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. In the latter state there are forty congregations, while in Santa Catharina 7,500 Protestants live in the German city of Blumenau alone, and of the 100,000 Germans in the state about two-thirds are evangelical. All the districts with a German population are richly provided with schools, even though all branches of instruction are not as thorough as might be desired. Evangelical schools, however, are not infrequently replaced by interdenominational religious schools. In the Roman Catholic German communities careful provision is made for schools, and in a number of colonies the educational activity of the clergy is such that they receive salaries from the State.
The Roman Catholic Church has two archdioceses in Brazil: (1) Bahia or Sao Salvador (founded as a bishopric in 1555, made an archbishopric in 1676), with the suffragan bishoprics of Alagoas (founded 1900; residence at Maceiu), Amazon (1893; residence Manaos), Belem or Para (1719), Fortaleza orCeara (1V54), Goyaz (1S2G; residence Uberava), Silo Luiz (1677; residence Maranhao) Olinda (1676), Parahyba (1N93>, and Piauhy (19(12; residence Therezina);andil2j S'.o SebastiaoorRio de Janeiro (1676; made an archbishopric 1893}, with the suffragan bishoprics of Curitiba (1893), Cuyaba (1745), Diamantina(1854), Marianna (1745 J, Sao Paulo (1745), Petropolis (1893), Sao Pedro (1848; residence Porto Alegre), Pouso Alegre (1900), and Espirito Santo (1896; residence Vitoria). There is also the exempt prelature of Santa rem (1903).
While secular priests are chiefly employed in the service of the Church, they are lacking in many districts and their training is defective. Despite the suppression of the orders, therefore, many of
the larger ones have numerous representatives. Although they have few stations, they are actively engaged in the conversion of the Indians, among whom the Jesuits worked with great success in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the ranges of the Cordilleras and along the Upper Amazon. In 1767 the Portuguese expelled the Jesuits from Brazil. The aborigines in the interior of Brazil still remain uninfluenced by any missionary activity.
WlLHELM GOETZ. Bibliography: On the country and people consult: J. C. and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, New York, 1896; [Miss M. R. Wright], The New Brazil, its Resources and Attractions, London, 1901; Santa-Anna Nery, The Land of the Amazons, New York, 1901; United States of Brazil: a Geographical Sketch, with special Reference to Economic Conditions and Prospects of Future Development, Bureau of Am. Republics, Washington, 1901; T. C. Dawson, The South American Republics, vol. i, New York, 1903 On religious matters consult: F. Badaro, Les Couvents au Bresil, Florence, 1897; H. P. Beach, Protestant Missions in South America, New York, 1900; J. S. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, ib. 1902; H. C. Tucker, Bible in Brazil, ib. 1902. An exhaustive work of reference is A. L. Garraux, Bibliographie bresilienne, Paris, 1898.
BREAD AND BAKING: Bread was for the Hebrews the chief article of diet, as it is for modern Palestinian peasants. In early times it was made from barley, which was later displaced by wheat, except as it remained the staple for the poorer classes, though now it is not regarded as altogether wholesome. Primitive usage was to roast the ears of grain, which wTere so eaten especially at harvest time (Ruth ii, 14), and, thus prepared, still form a convenient food for travelers. In primitive preparation of grain for food, a sort of mortar was used to crush it into the coarser meal, a handmill for the flour. The latter, of primitive form, is still used in the East and consists of two stones, the lower one the harder, the middle surfaces not flat, but respectively concave and convex, the upper with a hole in the center in which the post of the lower is set and into which the grain is poured for grinding. The work of grinding fell to the women or to slaves, though the later and larger mills were turned by beasts. The preparation of meal or flour was a daily task, done as there was need for the product. The dough was mixed in a wooden kneading-trough, and in early times was unleavened, as is the case generally with the modern Bedouin. The dough was made up round, flat or disk-shaped, and baked on a layer of heated stones from which the coals were removed when the dough was placed upon the stones to bake and then replaced. Mention is made (Lev. ii, 5) of an iron plate or pan for baking. There came to be finally two forms of oven, both in common use among the modern peasantry, one of which is heated from the outside, the other from the inside. The art of baking was developed with the other arts till it became a handicraft or trade, and gave its name to a street in Jerusalem (Jer. xxxvii, 21; cf. Hos. vii, 4). Bread was used in sacred offerings at first either leavened or unleavened; later the former was excluded (Ex. xxiii, 18; Lev. ii, 11).
(I. Benzinger.)
Bibliography: An excellent account, perhaps the best, is to be found in DB, i, 315-319. Consult also: E. Rohin-