THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
used with critical care); D'Arbois de Jubainville, £tudes «ur ri'tat inti rieur des abbayes Cisterciennes au IS. ct au 13. siecles. Paris, 1850; Franz Winter, Die Cistercienser des nordOstlichen Deutschlands bis zum Auftreten der Bettelorden, 3 vols., Gotha, 1868-71 (an excellent work). Many contributions are found in Studien und Mitteilungen au.a dem Benediktiner und Cistercienserorden, Wurzburg, 1879 sqq., and in the Cistercienserchronik, Bregenz, 1889 sqq. The literature on the different monasteries is found in Janauschek, ut sup. Additional naaterial may be found in J. L. von Mosheim, Institutes of Eccl. Hist., ii. 44, London, 1863; R. C. Trench, Lectures on Medieval Church Hist., pp. 110 sqq., New York, 1878; H. C. Sheldon, Hist, of tlie Christian Church; the Medimval Church, pp. 271-287, ib. 1894; W. W. Capes, Eng. Church in 14th and 16th Centuries, passim, ib. 1900; W R. W Stephens, Eng. Church. 1066-1272, pp. 213, 255-263, ib. 1901; Cistercian Order, its Object, its Rule. By a secular Priest, Cambridge, U. S., 1905; W. A. P. Mason, Beginnings of the Cistercian Order, in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, xiv (1905); Schaff, Christian Church, v. i., pp. 337 sqq.
CITIES IN PALESTINE.
Origin (§1).
Cities and Villages (§ 2).
Sites and Names (§3).
Features and Characteristics (§ 4).
The Israelitic cities west of the Jordan in most cases were of Canaanite origin. An astonishing number of fortified places is named in I. Origin, the Amarna letters and in the Egyptian lists. These walled cities were ruled by petty princes, whose authority extended to the neighboring villages. Examples of such strongholds are Jerusalem, Gezer, Lachish, Megiddo, etc. The Old Testament narrators were well aware that these cities were conquered by the Israelites only at a relatively late period (cf., e.g., the case of Jerusalem, II Sam. v. 6-9). There were, however, cities of Israelitic origin. Many settlements of the invading tribes must have grown gradually into villages and cities, which were later walled in (Josh, xix. 50; I Kings xii. 25). In the Greek period the founding of cities was quite usual; in many cases, however, some older city was merely enlarged and renamed. Herod the Great was especially devoted to building (see Herod and his Family). Caesarea, Phasaelis, and Herodeion, Alexandreion, Hyrcania, and other strongholds were built during his reign.
City and village are always distinguished in the Old Testament; a city is a walled stronghold {'ir homah, Lev. xxv. 30), in contrast to the unprotected \'illages and the scattered hamlets (haeerim, Lev. xxv. 31; kepharim, I Chron.
2. Cities xxvii. 25). Further, in the cities, the and seats of the princes and the lords of
Villages, the land, civilization made more rapid progress than in the open country. At times this distinction was unusually marked, for, in the various migrations which overran the land, the invaders first occupied the open country, while the cities remained for a long time in the hands of the original inhabitants. Among both the Canaanites and the Israelites the unprotected villages were under the jurisdiction of the cities (cf. the expres- .sion " mother in Israel," applied to a city, II Sam. XX. 19, and "a city and the villages thereof," Num. xxi. 2."), 32, xxxii. 42). In the Greek period the distinction was that the cities (poleis) had a con-
stitution and privileges different from those of the villages (kdmai ; cf. ki>tnopoleis in Mark i. 38).
The choice of a site for a settlement was largely determined by the presence of a supply of
water, though Jerusalem is a note- 3. Sites worthy exception. Numerous places and are named after their fountains — Names. En-gedi (" Fountain of the Kid "),
En-shemesh (" Foimtain of the Sun "), and others. Another consideration was that the site should afford a certain protection; elevations were therefore preferred. All larger fortified cities were built upon hills or mountain slopes. It is generally difficult to explain the names of towns; except where the common appellations are used {'ayin, "foimtain"; heth, "house"; 'ir, "city"; etc.). The common attempts at etymological explanation may generally be rejected, for the names usually belong to the ancient pre-Israelitic language, and have often changed greatly in the course of centuries. In the explanations given in the Old Testament the name has often evidently given rise to the legend (e.g., Gilgal, which is explained to signify the rolling off of a reproach. Josh. V. 9). It may be remarked that many places bore the name of the divinity who was worshiped there (Beth-el, "the Seat of El"; Beth-shemesh, "the House of the Sun "; etc.). It is unlikely that two names were in use for the same place in the earliest period. Most of such cases found in the Old Testament seem either to have arisen from misunderstanding, or else to have been adapted for harmonistic purposes. For example Jebus-Jerusalem is a name freely invented from the tribal name of the Jebusites. Only in the Greek period did a change of names become the fashion (Samaria to Sebaste, etc.).
Aided by the excavations at Megiddo Taanach, Gezer, Lachish, and elsewhere, the picture of an ancient city can be reconstructed to a 4. Features certain extent. Confined to a small and Char- space, with thick walls made of clay acteristics. bricks or of medium-sized roughhewn stones, these cities may be compared in many respects to those found to-day in Palestine. The streets were narrow and tortuous; the houses (see House) were small ; and the gate or gates, close to which was the only open square (Gen. xxiii. 10; Ruth iv. 1; II Sam. xv. 2; II Kings vii. 1, etc.), were built in an angle of the wall. The houses usually had the natural rock for their rear wall; indeed, they were little more than enlarged caves built up in front. The roofs of the lower houses formed the street in front of those built higher up; paved streets are first found in the time of the Herods (Josephus, Ant., XX. ix. 7). A regular police is not employed even now, but night watchmen are mentioned in the Old Testament (Ps. cxxvii. 1; Cant. iii. 3, v. 7; Isa. xxi. U)- The work of cleaning the streets was left to the dogs (Isa. V. 25; see Dogs). Trades and shops of the same kind were grouped together in particular streets (see Commerce among the Ancient Israelites; Handicrafts, Hebrew). Every walled city must have been well supplied with cisterns in the rocks, for it was rarely possible to