(T. KOLDB.)
Organizations called " brotherhoods " have been formed in the Protestant churches which, while having some resemblance to the confraternities of the Roman Catholic Church, necessarily differ in form and in purpose. There may be named here the interdenominational Brotherhood of Andrew and Philip (see Andrew and Philip, Brotherhood of), the Brotherhood of St. Andrew (see Protestajjt Episcopal Church), and the Brotherhood of St. Paul (see Methodists).
Biblioqbaphy: F. Falk, Die Confraternitaten des Mitlelalters, in Der Katholik, xlviii. 1 (1868), 548 sqq.; T. Kolde, Die kirchlichen Bruderschaften . im modernen Katholicismus, Erlangen, 1895; Bouvier, Der Ablass, die Bruderschaften und das Jubilaum, Regensburg, 1859; M. V Sattler, Geschichte der marianischen Konoregationen m
Confucius Congregration
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Bayern, Munich, 1864; L. Delplace, Histoire dea congregations de la S. Vierge, Lille, 1884; P. Loffler, in Stimmen aus Maria Laadi, xxvii (1884), 230 sqq., 343 sqq.; A. Ebner, Die klosterlichen Gebetsvereinigungen bis zum Ausgange des karolingischen Zeitallers, Regensburg, 1890; F. Beringer, Die Abltisse. ihr Wesen und Oebrauch, pp. 996 sqq., Paderborn, 1895.
CONFUCIUS, cen-fiti'shi-us. Early Life (§ 1).
Later Life and Posthumous Honors (§ 2). His Ideals and Teaching (§ 3). His Influence (§ 4).
The name of tliis Chinese sage is the Latinized form of Rung fu-tszc, i.e., the " Master Kung "; he was born in the district of Tsow, in the feudal kingdom of Lu, now the southern part of Shantung, in the year 551 b.c; d. in Lu 478 b.c. His father was governor of the district at the time — a man honored by his country, who died at the age of seventy-three, when his son was three years old. His mother carefully cherished his love of learning, but information concerning his early training is scanty and legendary. His grave demeanor and precocious mind early attracted attention, and he was led to study carefully the ancient laws and records. At nineteen he married. The following year he became a keeper of granaries and overseer of public fields, and the reforms he instituted gained
him the favor of his sovereign. In- 1. Early duced by the disregard for law among Life. his countrymen to examine more
closely the ancient writings, and satisfied of the ability of their teachings to check existing evils, he began to gather pupils. Although only twenty-two, his reputation attracted many young men to his house; and their numbers increased as the value of his instructions was recognized. The death of his mother when he was twenty-four afforded him opportunity to offer a tribute to her memory and to revive an old custom of retiring from office in order to mourn three years. His example has been followed to the present day. With the exception of a visit to the court of the Duke of Lu, he devoted the next ten years to further study and instruction of his disciples, all the while rising in influence as a public teacher and learned man, qualified to rule and advise in affairs of the state. This course of life he continued till ho was thirty-four years old, when his wish to enter public service was gratified. One of the chief ministers of Lu on his death-bed (517 b.c.) advised his son to join the school of Confucius to learn the nature of ceremonial observances, in order better to perform his official duties. He and a near relative did so; and they gave new rclat to the master, wlio was, at their representation, sent by Duke Chao to the imperial court at Loh-yang to study the rites then in use, so as to introduce them into Lu. He went as a private man, to see and learn, and returned home the same ye.ir.
Soon after, Duke C;hao was obliged to fly to the adjoining state of Tsi to save his life, and Confucius followed as a loyal subject. Not approving his position there, the sage returned home. He was now known as a great te.acher. IjU was distractetl by civil striic, from which h(^ i<c|)l aloof during the next fifteen years. In the year 500
Duke Chao's brother, Ting, came into power in Lu, and the rival factions were put down. Confucius when fifty years old was appointed magistrate of the town of Chung-tu. The influence of his virtue and the wisdom of his administration wrought a speedy revolution in the condition of the place. The next year he was raised to be minister of 2. Later crime, in which position he introduced Life and many reforms to simplify and enforce Posthu- the administration of justice. These remous forms excited the envy of neighboring Honors, lords, whose efforts finally succeeded in inducing the ruler of Lu to remove the sage from office (496 b.c). During the next thirteen years he wandered from state to state, at one time honored, at another in danger of his life, but always surrounded by a band of faithful disciples. When sixty-six years old he returned to Lu, and employed his remaining years in completing his literary works. His wife and only son, Kung Li, had died before him; but he was honored and mourned by many attached followers. His tomb at Kiuh-fau in Shantung is surrounded by an extensive collection of temples, halls, and courts, and has been well described by Rev. A. Williamson in his Journeys in North China, i., chap. xiii. His descendants still live in that region, and the head of the family is known as the Sacred Duke Kung. Though discouraged and neglected at the end of his career, Confucius, through his literary works, was destined to compel such homage from his fellow men as few others have had. In every city of China, down to those of the third order, thereTs' a temple to him, and in every college and school he is venerated and adored.
The ideal of Confucius, to the attainment of which all his efforts and teachings were directed, was a condition of happy tranquillity throughout the empire. He considered that this could be accomplished by maintaining the sacredness of the five obligations of human society; viz., those between sovereign and minister, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brother, and between friends, all persons faithfully performing the reciprocal duties arising from each relationship. He claimed an almost unlimited authority for the sovereign over the minister, father over the son, husband over the wife, elder brother over younger; and enjoined kind and upright dealings amnng friends, thus inculcating as his leading tenets subordination to superiors, and virtuous conduct. In harmony with the practical character of his system, he laid special stress upon the care and education of the young, which he 3. His regarded as the foundation of the Ideals and welfare of the state. His teachings Teaching, in regard to political and social morality are based essentially upon the same grounds. His idea of government was a pat(-nial despotism. But on the other hand, ascribing great importance to the jiower of example, he insisted upon personal rectitude and good government as the pledges anil arguments for a ruler's maintenance in power. The general tendency of the philosophy of Confucius is good; and, compared with that of Greece and Rome, it takes