THE Ninv SCIIAFF-HERZOG
consecrated bishop of Beverley, suffragan to the archbishop of York. He has written The Gospels of the Xew Testament, their Genuineness and Authenticity (London, 1887).
CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI: Church of England missionary bishop of the Niger; b. at Oshogun Yoruba, Central Africa, 1808; d. at Lagos, West Africa, end of Oct., 1891. When twelve and a half years old he was captured by Mohammedan slave trailers, sold to the Portuguese, and shipped from Lagos. The ship was captured by a British man-of-war and he was landed at Bathurst, Sierra Leone, and given his freedom. There in the Church of England mission he was educated and converted, and baptized on Dec. 11, 1825, taking the name of Samuel Crowther. He showed marked ability and learned with avidity. In 1826 he studied in the parochial school at Islington, London. In 1827 he returned to Africa and, after graduating from the Fourah Bay college at Sierra Leone, was put in charge of the school at Regents Town in 1830, in 1S32 of that at Wellington, and in 1832 was professor in his alma mater. In 1841 he was sent by the Church Missionary Society to explore the Niger country. In 1842 he was ordained in England. In 1843 he resumed work at Sierra Leone. In 1844 he began the Yoruba mission. On June 29th, 1864, he was consecrated first bishop of the Niger in Canterbury Cathedral.
Bibliographt: J. Page, Samuel Crowther, Bishop of the Niger, Xew York, 1889; DNB, supplement vol., ii. 93.
CROZIER : A tall staff, terminating in a cross, which is borne before Roman Catholic patriarchs and archbishops as a symbol of jurisdiction. That of the ordinary archbishop, which he uses only within his own province, has a single cross-piece; that of a patriarch two, and of the pope three. A cross similar to an archbishop's is also borne before cardinals in particular solemnities. The name crozier is sometimes, though less correctly, applied to the pastoral staff or crook of bishops, for which see Vestments and Insignia, Ecclesiastical.
CROZIER, JOHN BAPTIST: Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore; b. at Ballyhaise (65 m. s. of Londonderry), County Cavan, Ireland, Apr. 8, 1853. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1^72; M.A., 1875), and was curate of St. Stephen's, Belfast (1876-77), St, Anne's, Belfast (1877-80), vicar of Holywood, County Down (1880-97). He was chaplain to the bishop of Down 1885-86, chaplain to the archbishop of Armagh 1886-93, and chaplain to the lord lieutenant of Ireland 1891-97. He was also prebendary of Dunsford in Down Cathedral 1889-90, treasurer of Down Cathedral 1890-07, and fircljendary of Wicklow and canon of St. Patrick's National Cathedral 1896-97 He was honorary secretary of the General Synod of the Church of Ireland in 1896-97, and select preacher to Dublin University in 1898 and 1906, and to Cambridge University in 1903. In 1897 he was consecrated to the see of Ossory, Ferns, and Leighlin, and in 1907 was translated to Down.
CRUCIFIX: A oross l)caring the image of the crucified Christ. Early Christian art did not at-
tempt to portray the crucifixion, and crucifixes do not seem to be older than the ninth century. They show the same general characteristics as artistic representations of the crucifixion in general (see Crucifixion, § 4). In the West crucifixes have been much used in the churches as objects of public devotion and also as objects of private devotion in houses, and are worn on the person by ecclesiastics and others.
CRUCIFIXION.
Form of the Cross (§1). Method of Fastening to the Cross (§ 2). The Cross and Crucifixion of Jesus (§ 3). The Crucifixion in Art (§4).
Crucifixion (" fixing to the cross "), as a method of inflicting the death penalty, originated in the East and was practised by Medes, Persians, and Semitic peoples (except the Jews); later by the Greeks and especially by the Romans. The scanty and not always clear information ex-
1. Form of tant with reference to the form of the the Cross, cross used reveals two main types:
the so-called crux acuta, a perpendicular stake or pale, sharpened at the top; and the form consisting of an upright post and a superimposed, or transverse, cross-beam {T , "t" )• The so-called St. Andrew's cross, reputed to have signalized the martyrdom of the Apostle Andrew, and traditionally conceived as consisting of two arms of equal length intersecting obliquely ( X ), is a product of medieval legend. While the simple stake was employed for the impalement as v/ell as for the suspension of those under sentence, the composite cross was used for the latter purpose only. The length of the main portion was ordinarily but little above human stature; the cross-piece (patibulwm) was either bolted fast to the upright post, which stood driven into the ground; or, as oftener happened, the cross-piece was carried to the place of execution by the sentenced culprits.
There was no uniform process of fastening the delinquent on the cross. A certain latitude appears to have been allowed the executioners both in regard to the means employed and also
2. Method with reference to the manner and of Fasten- method of suspension — a fact exing to the plicable by the circumstance that the
Cross. Roman law recognized crucifixion only as punishment for slaves and people of inferior standing. Either cords alone or cords and nails were employed; and in the latter case, now only the hands, again both hands and feet were nailed fast. The " seat " (scdilc), serving to support the body, a block or pin on which the condemned was placed astride, apparently was not used in all cases; and the same is true with respect to a wooden step for the feet (represented in the " travesty crucifixion " of the imperial palace at Rome; see Asinarii) — which, by the way, is not to be confused with the hypopodium or suppedaneum of medieval portrayals of the crucifixion, the existence of which in antiquity is not sufficiently confirmed by the testimony of Gregory of Tours. The transgressor's offense, where not made known orally by a preceding crier, was usually written on a tablet {titulus), which the delinquent carried bun-