THE NEW S(
IIIAFF-IIERZOG
this custom is olisorved as far down as the middle of the thirteenth century.
A material transformation was brought about by the Oothic style, partly under the sway of relif^ious individuality, partly through the realistic reaction of devotional plays. The kingly crown gives place to the crown of thorns; the effect of pain becomes visible in the bodily attitude, often most acutely so; the head is bowed, the body bent. A single nail now pierces or transfixes both feet, which are superimposed (for what is alleged to be better knowledge cf. F. Piper, Einleitung in die monu- 7nentale Theologic, Gotha, 1867, pp. 619 sqq.). The convulsive and tragical elements of the events are also reflected in the general setting. To this province belongs the German art of the sixteenth century, especially as illustrated in Diirer and Holbein. It aspires to historical truth, and is not repelled by what is ghastly. On the other hand, the Italian Renaissance mitigates the harsh tones by application of its ideal of beauty. The same tendency is followed in the main by the art evolution of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; while the so-called " Nazarenes " introduced an insipid sentimental tone into portrayals of the Passion, which has its exponents even to-day. The modern religious inclination seeks to enforce historic truth, and does not shrink from the sternest realism.
At the outset the other personages presented by the Gospel narrative appear only to a limited extent (John and Mary, and one or two soldiers); but, as the Middle Ages draw to a close, richly animated scenes are created from the accessory details; most notably so on the carved altars. The religious dramas were of conspicuous influence in this direction. However, during the Romanesque period as well, certain legendary or allegorical figures begin to group themselves about the cross. Personifications of the Church and the Synagogue occur: the former as Victrix, the latter as Vanquished (cf. Paul ^Vebe^, Geistliches Schauspiel und kirchliche Kum^t in ihrem Verhdltnis erldutert an f iner Ikonographie der Kirche und Synagoge, Stuttgart, IS'.)!, with illustrations). Adam and Eve, the primogenitors of sin, which the Savior expiatecl for them as well as others, kneel beside the cross; though usually Adam alone is seen, resting in his grave beneath the cross, or in the act of rising and uplifting his hand toward the Crucified. With reference to the grave on Golgotha, the skull and cross bones appear at the foot of the cross. Furthermore, in connection with Gen. iii. 15, a serpent is t wined about the base of the cross. The chalice on which rests the Savior's foot, or which is fastened under the step, represents the Holy Grail. The chalice also is sometimes held in the hand of the Church, Ecrlcsia. At a quite early period, sun and moon are drawn into the scene, either in their natural semblance or personified; likewise, lamenting angels, God the I-'ather, and the Holy Ghost on high. The popularity and wide circulation of the Iriroiid of Veronica (q.v.), again, accounts for the fact, that the <le\'0ut lady finds a place with especial frequency on tlie way to the place of execution, thouirli sometimes as well in the vicinity of the Crucified.
The cross generally adheres to its traditional form. The medieval legends as to the wood of the cross became influential in approximating the cross in greater or less degree to the tree form. These observations attest the tremendous attractive power which the cross and the crucifixion exercised upon the religious teniperament and upon ecclesiastical usage; and therewith, both directly and indirectly, upon art. See Cross and its Use as a Symbol.
Victor Schultze.
Bibliography: O. Zockler, Das Kreuz Christi, Giitersloh, 1875, Eng. transl., London, 1877 (" sane and discriminating "); H. Fulda, Das Kreuz und die Kreuzigung, Breslau, 1878 (of great value); C. A. Zestermann, Die bildliche Darstellung des Kreuzes und die Kreuzigung Christi, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1867-68; T. Reil, Die fruhchristliihen Darstellungen der Kreuzigung Christi, ib. 1904; DB, i. 528- 529; EB. i. 957-961. For list of books on the Cross in Art see under Cross and its Use as a Symbol.
CRUCIGER (CREUZIGER, CREUTZINGER), KASPAR: The name of two German theologians.
1. Kaspar Cruciger the Elder: Luther's secretary and collaborator; b. at Leipsic Jan. 1, 1504; d. at Wittenberg Nov. 16, 1548. In 1513 he matriculated at Leipsic, where he heard the disputation between Eck and Luther. In 1521 he matriculated in theology at Wittenberg, and studied also mathematics and botany. In 1525 he became rector of St. John's School and pastor at IMagdeburg, but in 1528 he returned to Wittenberg as professor of theology and minister at the Schlosskirche, where he remained with a few intermissions until his death. He assisted Luther in his translation of the Bible, gave instruction when Melanchthon and others were called away, and participated in theological debates and conferences. His most important public service was connected with the establishment of the Reformation in Leipsic (1539), which he carried through with the help of Myconius. The city council tried to keep him there, but Luther declared him indispensable to Wittenberg. The Schmalkald war and the Interim embittered his last years. He wrote exegetical and dogmatic works, most of which were published after his death. He had a knowledge of shorthand and thus preserved many of Luther's sermons. With Georg Rorer he edited the first volumes of the Wittenberg edition of Luther's Works (1539 sqq.).
2. Kaspar Cruciger the Younger : Melanchthon's successor at Wittenberg, son of the elder Kaspar Cruciger; b. at Wittenberg Mar. 19, 1525; d. at Cassel Apr. 16, 1597. In the discussions after 1670 he was one of the leaders of the Philippists, and was engulfed in their catastrophe in 1574. He was imprisoned and was banished from Saxony in 1576. After a short residence with the count of Nassau at Dillenberg he went to Hesse, and died as pastor and president of the consistory at Cassel.
(Ferdinand Cohrs.)
Bibliography: For 1. CR, xi. 83.'^ S41; O. G. Schmidt, Caspar Crucigers Lehen, Ijeipsic, 1862; T. Pressel, Caspar Cruciger, Elberfeld, 1,S(')2; J. Kcistlin, Martin Luther, 2 vols., Berlin, 1903. For 2. G. J. I'lanck, Geschichte der Entstchunf/ proteslantischen Lehrbegriffs, \ ii. 620
sqq., Leipsic, 1799; XL Heppe, Geschichte dea deutschen Protestantismus, ii. ,312 sqq., Marburg, 1853.
CRUDEN, ALEXANDER: The author of "Cruden's Concordance "; b. at Aberdeen May 31, 1701;