RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
G-amaliel Gardens
1). Gladiatorial shows were most strongly condemned by the Jews. In the New Testament Paul makes frequent reference to the foot-race and its rewards (I Cor. ix. 24-27; Phil. iii. 12; II Tim. ii. 5; cf. James i. 12; Rev. ii. 10). (E. Konig.)
Bibliography: H. J. Van Lennep, Bible Lands, . . Customs and Manners Illustrative of Scripture, pp. 573-574, New York, 1875; J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, London, 1878; E. Buchholz, Die homerischen Realien, ii. 1, pp. 280-299, Leipsic, 1881; J. S. Howson, Metaphors of St. Paul, chap, iv., London, 1883; A. Huber, Ueber das •" Meisir " Spiel der
heidnischen Araber, pp. 9 sqq., Leipsic, 1883; A. Wunsche, Die Ratselweisheit bei den Hebraern, ib. 1883; M. Lazarus, Die Reize des Spieles, Berlin, 1883; T. Mommsen, Romisehe Altertumer, ii. 517 sqq., Leipsic, 1887; G. Dalman, Palastinischer Diwan, 1901, pp. 95 sqq., 182 sqq., 254 sqq.; DB, ii. 106-108.
GAMS, gams, PIUS BONIFATIUS: German Roman Catholic; b. at Mittelbuch (a village of Wurttemberg) Jan. 23, 1816; d. at Munich May 11, 1892. He studied at Tubingen, and became vicar at Achstettin and Gmiind in 1838 and teacher at Horb in 1841. He made a scientific journey at the expense of the State in 1842-43, and in the following year was appointed acting pastor at Wurmlhigen and professor at Rottweil. After serving as teacher at Gmiind, he became professor of theology and philosophy at the episcopal seminary of Hildesheim in 1847, but in 1855 entered the Benedictine monastery of St. Boniface at Munich. Gams was a prolific writer, his principal works being: Ausgang und Ziel der Geschichte (Tubingen, 1850); Die Geschichte der Kirche Jesu Christi im neunzehnten Jahrhundert (3 vols., Innsbruck, 1854-58; supplementary volume, 1860); Margott, die Siege der Kirche im ersten Jahrzehnt des Pontifikats Pius IX. (1860); Katechetische Reden gehalten in der Basilika zuMiinchen (2 vols., Regensburg, 1862); Kirchengeschichte von Spanien (3 vols., 1862-79); Das Jahr des Martyrtodes der heiligen Apostel Petrus und Paulus (1867); Zur Geschichte der spanischen Staatsinquisition (1878); and Der Bonifaciusverein in Deutschland 1850-1880 (Paderborn, 1880). He wrote also a biography of J. A. Mohler (Regensburg, 1866) and edited his Kirchengeschichte (3 vols., 1867-68), as well as the Series episcoporum ecclesice catholicce quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo (1872; supplements 1879 and 1886).
GANGRA, SYNOD OF (circa 340). See Eu-
STATHIUS OF SEBASTE.
GANNON, THOMAS JOSEPH: Roman Catholic; b. at Cambridge, Mass., July 14, 1853. He studied at Boston College, which he left in 1872 to enter the Society of Jesus. He studied the usual courses of the Society at Frederic, Md. (1872-75, 1889-90), and Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md. (1875-78, 1883-87), and was professor of Latin, Greek, and mathematics at Holy Cross College, Worcester, Mass., 1878-83. He taught philosophy at Boston College (1887-88) and at Woodstock College (1888-89), and after being assistant to his provincial in 1890-91 was president of St. John's College, Fordham, N. Y., until 1896. He was then again assistant to two provincials for five years; in 1901-06 provincial of the Maryland-New York province, and in 1907 became instructor of ter-
tiaries in the Novitiate of St. Andrew-on-Hudson, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. He has been a member of the Missionary Band since 1906.
GARASSE, ga"ras', FRANCOIS: French Jesuit; b. at Angouleme (66 m. n.e. of Bordeaux), France, 1584; d. at Poitiers (60 m. s.s.w. of Tours), France, June 14, 1631. He joined the Jesuit order in 1600, and soon became known as a powerful pulpit orator. As a writer he devoted himself chiefly to polemics, sparing no opponents of his order, and attacking even the^dead. In 1622 he published a pamphlet against Etienne Pasquier, a Roman Catholic, who had died several years before, because the latter had defended the university against the Jesuits in 1565. Under the pseudonym " Andreas Schioppius " he wrote a polemical pamphlet entitled Elixir calvinisticum (Charenton, 1615) aimed at the French Reformed Protestants, and in 1619 he published at Brussels his Rabelais reforrne, which was more of a satire than a polemic. He was especially antagonistic toward Pierre du Moulin, a prominent and scholarly Reformed polemic author. Garasse's writings are characterized by a lack of earnestness, scientific spirit, and thorough knowledge of his subject, as well as by a want of dignity and truthfulness. He died of the plague at Poitiers, whither he had been sent at his own request to care for the sick.
Bibliography: H. Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, i. 289, Innsbruck, 1892; De Backer, Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jesus, ed. C. Sommervogel, iii. 1184 sqq., Paris, 1892.
GARDENS, HEBREW: In gardening the Israelites were pupils of the Canaanites. The Hebrew gan meant either a vegetable-garden (I Kings xxi. 2) or an orchard (Jer. xxix. 5; Amos iv. 9; Eccles. ii. 5). In the first-mentioned were raised onions, garlic, cucumbers, and melons (which, eaten with bread, were leading articles of diet), and aromatic herbs, such as mint and caraway. Such gardens required careful and bountiful watering (Isa. lviii. 11; Jer. xxxi. 12). Vegetables were often planted in the fields after the harvest of the winter crop (see Agriculture, Hebrew).
Of greater importance were the orchards (see Fruit-Trees in the Old Testament), which formed the gardens characteristic of the Old Testament. The kings of Jerusalem had such gardens in the valley southeast of the city (II Kings xxv. 4; Jer. xxxix. 4; cf. II Kings xxi. 18, 26), which served as pleasure-grounds, particularly when provided with water. To " sit under one's vine and fig-tree " was characteristic of a happy period (I Kings iv. 25; Micah iv. 4). The old Hebrew, like other dwellers in the scantily watered East (cf. the descriptions of paradise, in the Koran and the general Mohammedan conception), thought of paradise as an Eden with trees of all kinds, where, at evening, cool breezes blow (Gen. iii. 8). It was customary to place the family vault in a " garden " (II Kings xxi. 18, 26; Matt, xxvii. 60). In Babylon such pleasure-grounds were popular (cf. B. Meissner and P. Rost, Bauinschriften Sanheribs, v. 14 sqq., Leipsic, 1893), and the kings and noblemen of Persia delighted in beautiful parks (Xenophon, Cyropwdia, I., iii. 12; Anabasis, I.,ii.71; cf. Esther i. 5, vii. 7). Indeed, the word pardes, the later
Gardiner
Garnet