RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gardiner Garnet
ambassador, and in 1542 he was one of those who conducted the negotiations with the imperial ambassador in London. He enjoyed the favor of Henry to the last, but with the accession of Edward VI. he was removed from the Council of State and from the chancellorship of the university. In consequence of his opposition to the religious innovations of the new council, Gardiner was committed to the Fleet on Sept. 25, 1547, but was allowed to return to his diocese the following December. Summoned to London in May, 1548, he still refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the council and maintained the doctrine of the real presence, for which he was imprisoned in the Tower for a year. In Dec, 1550, he was tried before Cranmer, and on Feb. 15, 1551, was deprived of his bishopric and confined to the Tower until the death of Edward in 1553.
With the accession of Mary, Gardiner was released and restored to office. As lord high chancellor he crowned the queen Oct. 1, 1553, and presided at the opening of Parliament four days later, in addition to being reelected chancellor of Cambridge and master of Trinity Hall. He advocated rigorous measures against those who refused obedience to the Roman Catholic Church, but the severity popularly ascribed to him is doubtless exaggerated. He also strove to restore England to the papal allegiance, and even sought to have Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon declared valid, thus implying the illegitimacy of Elizabeth. He was likewise obliged to work in favor of Mary's marriage to Philip II., although in reality he was opposed to it. He sought to restore the ecclesiastical courts and the episcopal jurisdiction, and one of his last official acts was the reenforcement of the statute De hceretico comburendo. The chief works of Gardiner were. De vera obedientia (London, 1535 ; Eng. transl. by M. Wood, Geneva [?], 1553); Conquestio ad M. Bucerum de ejusdem pseudologia (Louvain, 1544); A Detection of the Devil's Sophistry (London, 1546); An Explanation and Assertion of the True Catholic Faith, Touching the Most Blessed Sacrament of the Altar (Rouen, 1551); Palinodia libri de vera obedientia (Paris, 1552); and Epistolce ad J. Checum de pronuntiatione lingua Grwcw (Basel, 1555). A few minor works also exist in manuscript.
Bibliography: Sources are: Calendars of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII.. ed. Brewer and Gairdner, 2 vols., London, 1884, Consult: C. H. and T. Cooper, Athena? Cantabrigienses, i. 139- 140, ib. 1858; J. B. Mullinger, Hist, of University of Cambridge, ii. 58-63, ib. 1888; S. R. Maitland, Essays on Subjects Connected with the Reformation, ib. 1899; DNB, xx. 419-425 (careful and authoritative).
GARISSOLES, ga"ri"sol', ANTOINE: French Protestant; b. at Montauban (110 m. s.e. of Bordeaux) June, 1587; d. there Mar., 1651. He was pastor at Puylaurens from 1610 to 1620, when he was called to Montauban. He was professor of theology at the Academy of Montauban from Oct., 1527. till his death, and with the exception of Chamier and Cameron, he is the best-known lecturer of this ancient institution. In 1645 he presided at the Synod of Charenton and distinguished himself by his successful resistance to royal demands that
menaced Protestant liberties. At this synod he also attacked the doctrine of mediate imputation of Placffius. His works include: La voie du salut exposee en huit sermons (Montauban, 1637); Decreti synodici Carentoniensis (1648); Theses theological (1648); Disputationes elenchticce (1650); and Catechesios ecclesiarum in Gallia (Geneva, 1656). Bibliography: Bulletin de la societe du protestantisme francais, 1874; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 408-409.
GARLANDS: Garlands and flowers played an important part in the private and public life of the ancient Egyptians. The court used a hundred garlands daily for the adornment of wine-vessels, and at festal repasts the guests decked themselves with wreaths. Flowers were offered to the gods and the sarcophagus of the dead was entwined with them. The use of wreaths and flowers by Greeks and Romans is well known. The Israelites had no especial fondness for flowers, although it may be mere accident that there is no mention of flowergardens. The use of green sprays and flowers for personal adornment at banquets, marriage feasts, and on other festival occasions was, however, not foreign to the Israelites (Isa. xxviii. 1; cf. Ezek. xxiii. 42; Cant. hi. 11; III Mace. iv. 8). Later, under the influence of Hellenism, this custom became general; fragrant flowers were regarded as elements of a cheerful and joyous life (Wisd. of Sol. ii. 8); joy and mirth found expression in the adornment of the person and house with garlands (III Mace. vii. 16; Ecclus. vi. 31, xv. 6). Garland and crown are used as metaphors for ornament and honor of every kind (Job xix. 9; Prov. xii. 4, xiv. 24). It does not appear, however, that garlands were used in religious observances; at least there is no mention of the adornment of the Temple with natural flowers. To place wreaths upon sacrificial animals was a pagan custom (Acts xiv. 13). Only at the Feast of Tabernacles, according to later usage, those who took part in the procession carried branches of citron and palm.
I. Benzingeh.
Bibliography: Tertullian, De corona; B. Ugolini, Thesaurus antiquitatum sacrarum, vol xxx.. 34 vols , Venice, 1744-69; L. Low, in Ben Chananja, 1867, noa. 11. 12; DB, i. 529-531; EB, i. 723, 963; JE, iv. 369-370: and <TTei/«wo<: in the lexicons
GARNET, HENRY HIGHLAND: Colored Presbyterian, United States minister and consul-general to Liberia; b. at New Market, Md., Dec. 23, 1815; d. in Monrovia, Liberia, Feb. 13, 1882. He was born in slavery, but escaped with his father to the North and settled in New York City in 1826. He was educated at the Canaan Academy (N. H.) and at the Oneida Institute, near Utica, N. Y., where he was graduated in 1840. He was licensed to preach in 1842 and was thereupon pastor in Troy for nearly ten years. In 1850 he went to Europe in the interest of the free-labor movement and for three years lectured in Great Britain on slavery. In 1851 he was a delegate to the peace conference at Frankfort, and in 1853 he went to Jamaica as a missionary for the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. He was pastor of the Shiloh Presbyterian Church, New York, 1855-65, and of a church in Washington, D. C, 1865-69. He then
Gamier G-asquet