RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Humanism Hume
tion of formal and literary and esthetical things, and a profound indifference toward spiritual things has been, and still is, a serious failing of much classicism from Petrarch to the present time. The classicists were secular to the core. E. G. Sihlee.
Bibliography: J. Burckhardt, ut sup. (somewhat vitiated by the underlying Hegelianism); G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums, 3 vols., Berlin, 1880- 1881; P. Schaff, The Renaissance; Revival of Learning and Art in the 14th and 15th Centuries, New York, 1891; F. A. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation, London, 1898; R. C. Jebb, Humanism in Education, ib. 1899; Cambridge Modern History, vol. i., chaps, xvi.-xvii., New York, 1902; L. Einstein, Italian Renaissance in England, ib. 1902; E. Borkowsky, Aus der Zeit des Humanismus, Jena, 1905; H. Hermelink, Die religiosen Reformbestrebungen des deutschen Humanismus, Tubingen, 1907; J. S. Mackenzie, Lectures on Humanism, New York, 1907; J. M. Robertson, Pioneer Humanists, London, 1907; F. C. S. Schiller, Studies in Humanism, ib. 1907; Lichtenberger, ESR, vi. 409-419. An excellent mirror of the point of view of the Humanists is given by P. Giovio's Elogia virorum Uteris illustrium, Antwerp, 1557.
HUMANITARIAN: A name applied both to such antitrinitarians as consider Christ a mere man, and to such parties as profess the " religion of humanity," whose fundamental dogma is the perfectibility of the human race without superhuman aid.
HUMBERT: Cardinal; d. May 5, 1061. He was of Burgundian birth, and a monk of the cloister Moyen-moutier in Lorraine, when Pope Leo IX. called him to Rome in 1049. In the following year he was appointed archbishop of Sicily; in 1051 he obtained the bishopric of Silvia Candida, combined with the dignity of cardinal bishop. When Archbishop Leo of Achrida, in a circular addressed to Bishop John of Trani in Apulia, in 1053, sharply attacked a series of liturgical and ritual peculiarities of the Western Church, and, in consequence, the contention between Rome and Byzantium flamed up afresh, the Emperor Constantine IX., Monomachus, who needed the pope's alliance against the Normans, exerted himself to restore peace. In Jan., 1054, Leo IX. sent an embassy to the imperial court, consisting of Archbishop Peter of Amalfi, Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine, and Humbert. The patriarch, Michael Cserularius, was disposed to no advances, and treated his rival's messengers with haughtiness, while they accosted him superciliously. After termination of unpromising negotiations on July 16, 1054, the Roman envoys deposited on the high altar of St. Sophia a documentary excommunication of the patriarch and his adherents. They left Constantinople two days later (cf. Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 95 sqq.).
During this journey to Byzantium Leo IX. had died, on Apr. 19. Humbert was trusted by his successor, Victor II. (1055-57), and by Stephen IX., who, after the death of Victor, had proposed Humbert as his successor. The energetic aggressive policy toward which the reformed papacy advanced under Stephen's guidance was reflected by Humbert's pen in the important treatise Libri tres adversus simoniacos (ed. F Thaner, MGH, Lib. de lite, i-i 1890, pp. 95-253). He preaches uncompromising antagonism to simony, and advocates a policy with reference to Investiture (q.v.) which proved fundamental in the treatment of this problem by the later Gregorian party.
After the sudden death of Stephen IX. (1058) Humbert took part in the election of Bishop Gerhard of Florence. Under this pope, Nicholas II., Humbert's influence continued strong. When the doctrine espoused by Berengar of Tours (q.v.) in relation to the Eucharist, after having already been condemned at synods at Rome and Vercelli, under Leo IX., in 1050, came up for discussion afresh, the accused was compelled to subscribe a confession of faith drafted by Humbert, who had attended the original synods, and had worked against Berengar. Humbert stands out as an energetic and straightforward personality of great power, who by no means shrank from blunt measures. Closer parallels between him and Hildebrand are not conspicuous. With Peter Damian, he rendered invaluable service in the cause of " reform " in the Church during the middle of the eleventh century.
Carl Mirbt.
Bibliography: C. Will, Acta et scripta quce de controversiis ecclesice . . so3culo xi. extant, Leipsic, 1861; E. Steindorff, Jahrbiicher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III., vol. ii., ib. 1881; H. Halfmann, Kardinal Humbert, G6ttingen, 1883; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbiicher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV., vol. i., Leipsic, 1890; J. Langen, Geschichte der rvmischen Kirche . . . bis Gregor VII., Bonn, 1892; C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII., Leipsic, 1894; W. Martens, Gregor VII., ib. 1894; Histoire litteraire de la France, vii. 527; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 379, 513, 581-584; KL, vi. 411-414.
HUME, DAVID: Philosopher and historian; b. in Edinburgh Apr. 26 (o.s.), 1711; d. there Aug. 25, 1776. He was of good Scotch descent, his father tracing his ancestry to Lord Home of Douglas. His mother was " a woman of singular merit." In 1723 he appears to have been a student at the University of Edinburgh, but he was not graduated. He halted in his choice between several callings — law, mercantile life, and that of the scholar and philosopher. His first work was a Treatise of Human Nature (vols, i., ii., London, 1739; vol. iii., 1740). For a time he turned aside to political subjects and published Essays, Moral and Political (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1741-42; final ed., 1 vol., 1788), which met with great success. In 1744, owing to opposition on theological grounds, he failed of election to the chair of ethics and pneumatic philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. He next published his Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understanding (London, 1748; 2d ed., 1750), and from 1749 to 1751 was engaged upon his Dialogues on Natural Religion (not published until 1779), Inquiry concerning the Principles of M orals (1751), and Political Discourses (Edinburgh, 1752; Fr. transl., Amsterdam, 1754). His History of -Great Britain appeared in 2 vols, at Edinburgh, 1754-57 (with autobiography and final corrections, 8 vols., 1778), and the Natural History of Religion in 1757 From 1758 Hume lived in London, Paris (1763-67, where he was a member of the English embassy, and extremely popular with educated men and women), London again (1767-69), and in St. David's Street (named after him), Edinburgh, from 1769.
Hume's early fame as a historian has been overshadowed by his philosophical writings. The principal subjects of these are the human understanding, liberty and necessity, the principles of morals, immortality, the idea of cause, theism, and miracles as re-
Hume Humility