THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Iished independent institutions to care for their poorer brethren. The majority of the newcomers are of the orthodox wing of Judaism, so that whereas before the '' eighties " the majority of American Jews were probably attached to reform congregations, at least five-sixths of the 1,200 congregations now in the United States are of the more conservative section. In order to supply these with rabbis, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America was established by Sabato Morais in New York in 1895, and was reorganized in 1902 under the presidency of Solomon Schechter (q.v.). This institution has now one of the largest Hebrew libraries in the world.
Jews have their own press, the first periodical being The Jew in New York 1823-25, the next important one being The Occident, Phila- 5. The delphia, edited by Isaac Leeser, 1843- Press; lg69 The morg jmportant weeklies
Condi- are ^rner^can Israelite of Cincinnati, tions established in 1854; Jewish Messenger, New York, 1857-1902; The American Hebrew, New York, 1879; Jewish Exponent, Philadelphia, 1887; Reform Advocate, Chicago, 1891, and Jewish Comment, Baltimore, 1895. The newcomers have also founded a press of their own in Yiddish, a dialect of archaic German printed in Hebrew characters. The chief paper is the Jewish Daily ATews of New York. The Jewish Publication Society of America, founded in 1889, issues works adapted for popular reading, its most memorable publications being Graetz's History of the Jews, Israel Zangwill's Children of the Ghetto, and Schechter's Studies in Judaism. American Judaism has not hitherto produced any important contributions to Jewish learning, though the Jewish Encyclopedia, in twelve volumes (New York, 1900-06) summarizes for the first time the results of the Jewish scholarship of Europe and is being translated into Hebrew and Russian. Owing to the large increase in the number of American Jews, the government has of recent years taken action to protest against the persecutions in Europe which lead to such burdens being cast upon America by the illiberal and persecuting action of despotic governments. Meetings of protest have been held throughout the country against Russian tyranny in 1881, 1893, and after the Kishineff massacres in 1903, when a fund of over one million dollars was collected in America by a Jewish relief committee. In order to take continuous action in such cases an American Jewish Committee was formed in 1906 of representative Jews throughout the country. Jews have taken part in the higher activities of American life in numbers far beyond their numerical proportions. They have had eminent representatives among the officers of the army and navy, in the United States Senate, in the learned professions, among artists and inventors, and in literature. Altogether, the Jews of the United States have perhaps the most fortunate and influential position of any Jews throughout the world. They number nearly two millions (half of them in New York), about one-sixth of the whole number of Jews, and they show exceptional capacity to enter into the democratic life of America. Joseph Jacobs.
Bibliography: On the general history abundant literature, touching the various phases, will be found cited under Ahab; Archeology, Biblical; Biblical Theology; Inquisition; Cabala; Talmud; Zionism. Supplementing these lists of literature the reader may consult: W. D. Morrison, Jews under Roman Rule, London, 1890; W. H. Kosters, Widerherstellung Israels, Heidelberg, 1895; J. P. Peters, The Early Hebrew Story, New York, 1904; J. C. Todd, Politics and Religion in Ancient Israel, ib. 1904; M. Friedliuider, Die religibsen Bewegungen innerhalb des Judentums im Zeitalter Jesu, Berlin, 1905; R. L. Ottley, Religion in Israel, London, 1905; W. E. Addis, Hebrew Religion to the Establishment of Judaism, ib. 1906; B. Baentsch, Altorientalischer und israelitischer Monotheismus, Tubingen, 1906; A. Lods, La Croyance a la vie future et le culte des morts dans I'antiquite Israelite, 2 vols., Paris, 1906; E. Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme, Halle, 1906; K. Marti, Die Religion des A. T., Tubingen, 1906, Eng. transl., London, 1907; W. Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums in neutestamentlichen Zeitalter, Gottingen, 1907; T. K. Cheyne, Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel, London, 1907; idem, Decline and Fall of the Kingdom of Judah, ib. 1907; F. Stahelin, Probleme der israelitischen Geschichte, Basel, 1907; P. Wendland, Die heUenistich-rbrnische Kvltur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum, Tubingen, 1907; S. A. Cook, The Religion of Ancient Palestine in the 2d Millennium, B.C., Edinburgh, 1908; J. B. D. Eerdmans, Alttestamentliche Studien, II., Die Vorgeschichte Israels, Giessen, 1908; W. Fairweather, The Background of the Gospels ; or, Judaism Between the Old and the New Testaments, Edinburgh, 1908; P. Goodman, The Synagogue and the Church, London, 1908; C. H. H. Wright, Light From Egyptian Papyri on Jewish Hist. Before Christ, ib., 1908; M. Lohr, Das Weib in Jahwe-Religion und Kult, Leipsic, 1908.
For post-Biblical history, individual and general, the best thesaurus is the JE, which has taken a fully authoritative position on matters Jewish. On various phases consult: M. J. Jost, Geschichte des Judentums und seinen Sekten, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1857-59; A. Neubauer and M. Stern, Hebraische Berichte iiber die Judenverfolgungen wahrend der Kreuzzuge, Berlin, 1892; H. J. M. Coudenhove, Das Wesen des Antisemitismus, Berlin, 1901; H. Graetz, Volkstumliehe Geschichte der Juden, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1905; E. N. Adler, Jews in Many Lands, Philadelphia, 1905; S. Funk, Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500, Berlin, 1902; M. Franco, Hist, et litterature juives pays par pays, Paris, 1905; M. C. Peters, The Jew as a Patriot, New York, 1902;
D. Philipson, The Reform Movement in Judaism, London, 1907; G. F. Abbott, Israel in Europe, New York, 1907; M. Harris, Hist, of the Mediaeval Jews from, the Moslem Conquest of Spain to the Discovery of America, ib. 1907.
For Judaism in different lands consult: On England: J. Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, London, 1870; J. Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England, ib. 1893 (a collection of sources); L. Wolf, Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to . Cromwell, ib. 1901; Select Pleas, Starrs,
and Other Records from the Rolls of the Exchequer of the Jews, 1220-1234, ib. 1902; Calendar of the Plea Rolls of the Exchequer of the Jews, ed. J. M. Rigg, vol. i., 1218-1272, ib. 1905; Celebration of the 250th Anniversary of the Whitehall Conference, ib. 1905; A. M. Hyamson, A Hist, of the Jews in England, London, 1908. On France: J. Aronius, Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden im frankischen und deutschen Reiche bis zum . . 1273, Berlin, 1887-1902; X. Gasnos, Etude sur la condition des Juifs dans I'ancien droit francais. Angers, 1897; S. Kahn, Notice sur les Israelites de Ntmes, 672-1808, Nlmes, 1901; H. Lucien-Brun, La Condition des Juifs en France depuis 1789, Paris, 1901. On Germany and Austria: J. Aronius, ut sup.; M. Friedlander, Materialen zur Geschichte der Juden in Bbhmen, Briinn, 1888;
E. Nuebling, Die J udengemeinden des M ittelalters, Ulm, 1896; J. E. Scherer, Die Rechtsverhdltnisse der Juden in den deutsch-osterreichischen Landern, Leipsic, 1901; G. Liebe, Das Judentum in der deutschen V ergangenheit, Jena, 1903. On Rumania: E. Sincerus, Les Juifs en Roumanie depuis le traite de Berlin, London, 1901; B. Lazare, Les Juifs en Roumanie, Paris, 1902; I. Lahovarie, The Jewish Question in Roumania, ib., 1903. On Russia and Poland: M. Davitt, The Story of Anti-Semitic Persecutions in Russia, London, 1903; S. Spinner, Etwas iiber den Stand der Cultur bei den Juden in Polen in IS. Jahrhundert, Vienna, 1903. On Spain and Portugal: E. H. Lindo, Hist, of the Jews of Spain and Portugal, London, 1848; F. D.