RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Judea Judges
merits and Apocrypha; the Quarterly Statements; and, of their maps, the Great Map of Western Palestine, the Photo- Belief Map of Palestine, and the Raised Map of Palestine. Indispensable are: Onomastica sacra, ed. P. de Lagarde, Gottingen, 1887; A. Neubauer, La Geographie du Talmud, Paris, 1868; V. Guerin, Description de la Palestine, i.-ii., Paris, 1868-75. A very convenient check-list of placenames is given in P. Thomsen, Loca sancta. Verzeichnis derim 1.-6. Jahrhundert erwahnten Ortschaften Palastinas, vol. i., Halle, 1907; cf. idem, Systematische Bibliographie der Palastina-Literatur, Leipsic, 1908. A considerable literature of travel may be found in J. F. Hurst, Literature of Theology, pp. 119-130, New York, 1896. Consult further: C. Bitter, Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula, iii., 174-350, Edinburgh, 1866; G. Ebersand H. Guthe, Palastina in Bild und Wort, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1881-83; F. Buhl, Geographie des alien Palastina, Tubingen, 1896; F. J. Bliss, Development of Palestine Exploration, New York, 1906; DB, ii. 791-792; EB, ii. 2616- 2623; K. Baedeker, Palestine and Syria, Leipsic, 1906.
On Hebron consult: M. de Vogue\ Macpila ou tombeau des patriarches a Hebron, Lausanne, 1869; E. Pierotti, Macpela ou tombeau des patriarches a Hebron, ib. 1869; E Rosen, in Berliner Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine Erdku-de, xiv (1863), 369-429, xv (1864), 160-162; idem, in ZDMG, xii (1858), 477-513; H. Guthe, in ZDPV, xvii (1894), 238 sqq. On Gilgal: H. Zschokke, Beitrage zur Topographic der westlichen Jordansau, Jerusalem, 1866. On Bethphage: C. Clermont-Ganneau, in Revue archeologique, December, 1877. On Emmaus: H. Zschokke, Das neutestamentliche Emmaus, Schaffhausen, 1865; M. J. Schiffers, Amwas, das Emmaus des heiligen Lucas, Freiburg, 1890; H. Guthe, in ZDPV, xvi (1893), 298 sqq. On Mizpeh: P. A. Raboisson, Les Maspeh. Etude de gfograuhie exegetique touchant les differentes localites de ce nom, Paris, 1897. Also see Gezer.
JUDGES.
I. The Office. 1. Conservative View.
General Concept (§ 1). Divisions; the Narrative
Character of the Period (§1).
(§ 2). Critical View Rejected (§2).
History of the Period (§ 3). 2. Critical View. Chronology of the Judges Analysis (§ 1). (§ 4). Idealizing (§ 2).
II. The Book. The History (§ 3).
I. The Office: Judges (Hebr. shophetim) was the name applied to the rulers of Israel at the time described in the book of Judges (see II. below). They find their analogues in the " judges " of the Tyrians (Josephus, Apion, i. 21) and in the Carthaginian sufetes (Livy, xxviii. 37, xxx. i. General 7); they must not be regarded, how- Concept, ever, as heads of regularly organized states, but rather as dictators who, having first evidenced their capabilities by their prowess, naturally became the leaders of a tribe or group of tribes. In time of peace their function was primarily the decision of cases which could not be settled by the " elders "; and some of them, such as Deborah (Judges iv. 4) and Samuel (I Sam. vii. 6), were judges by virtue of their prophetic gifts even before they became the liberators of their countrymen; while others, as Samson, seem never to have delivered judgment. The name, however, was borne by the rulers of the Israelites from the conquest of Canaan by Joshua to the establishment of the kingdom, with the exception of Abimelech, the son of Gideon, who seems to have had the title of king (Judges ix.)..
The character of the period of the Judges is outlined in the introduction to the book of Judges, especially ii. 10 sqq. After the subjection of the chief Canaanitic peoples, the Israelites had relaxed their energies, and had entered into friendly rela-
tions in many cases with their former foes. The result was an oppressive subjugation of the Israelites, until they remembered God, who
2. Charac- raised up judges to deliver them, ter of the Nevertheless, as soon as a judge passed
Period, away, his influence vanished, and the people returned to their coquetry with the surrounding nations, again falling into political and spiritual bondage. The period was also characterized by a centrifugal tendency both in national and religious life. It was the time when the tribes enjoyed the greatest freedom, and only when mutual perils united them did they recollect their common origin and invoke their common God. The tendencies of the time thus powerfully favored the confusion of the worship of Yahweh and Baal, as well as of other gods whose symbols, oracles, and cult were openly adopted; but, on the other hand, the horrors resulting from gentile immorality were washed out in blood (Judges xix.-xx.), and faith prompted the vows of mighty sacrifices (Judges xi. 31; I Sam. i. 11). In like manner, low though the culture of the Israelites sank during this period of storm and stress, the power of the nation was still strong and unbroken. It was an age of heroes, not only physical but moral, finding exemplification in the Song of Deborah, the fable of Jotham, and the humor of Samson. Nor was the disunion of the Israelites at this period, as some maintain, a preliminary to their development as a nation, for the Song of Deborah itself clearly shows a strong consciousness of the religious and national homogeneity of the tribes.
The period of the Judges was opened by an eight years' subjugation of Israel by Chushan-rishathaim of Aram-naharaim (Judges iii. 8), apparently a king of the Mitanni (A. H. Sayce, The Higher Criticism and the Monuments, pp. 297, 304, London, 1894) who repeatedly sought to establish themselves in Canaan against Egypt. The Israel-
3. History ites were delivered from this yoke by of the Othniel, the son of Kenaz, who dwelt Period, in the south (Judges i. 12-13), after
which there followed forty years of peace (Judges iii. 9-11). During this period of repose, two events happened which, although related at the end of the book of Judges, can not have taken place long after Joshua's death: the migration of a portion of the tribe of Dan, prevented by the hostile Amorites from occupying their territory along the sea (Judges i. 34), to the north, where they founded the city of Laish, or Dan (the modern Tell al-Kadi, west of Banias), and introduced an idolatrous cult (Judges xviii.); and the war of revenge on Benjamin for the outrage committed in Gibeah (Judges xix.-xx.). Others, however, place both these events before the Mesopotamian invasion (cf. Josephus, Ant. V., ii. 8 sqq., iii. 1); but there is no ground for the view that these episodes are later interpolations. After the death of Othniel at the expiration of the forty years' peace, the Israelites were again subjugated for eighteen years by the combined Moabites, Ammonites, and Amalekites, until the Benjamite Ehud killed the Moabite King Eglon (Judges iii. 12 sqq.). Eighty years of peace followed, after which the Israelites
Judges