THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
power. The Christian communities of the Diaspora developed, either as offshoots from synagogues, or from being founded by Jewish proselytes. They follow the order of synagogue usages. The reading of the Old Testament was not the only reminiscence of the synagogue. The Acts in many passages shows how, at the beginning, women such as Priscilla, Lydia, and Phcebe were important in the life of the Church.
The impressions derived from the epistles of Paul
suggest the independence of each community. In
them individuals either with local honorary titles
or with official positions were subor-
2. Inde- dinate. The communities were directly
pendence of under the apostles who founded them.
Local Com- The whole Christian community was
munities. pictured in each of its parts. The ideal unity lies in the work of the Holy Spirit (Acts xv.). The way the disciplinary case at Corinth was handled by Paul is a crucial example. He and the community acted together, there is no question of special officials. Early terminology shows the same result — " the Church of God abiding in the city " (cf. I Clement i.; and the salutations with which Polycarp begins his epistle). Each community is part of an organism belonging to heaven, for the time being dwelling on earth: " The Churches of God, when carefully contrasted with the assemblies of the districts in which they are situated, are as beacons in the world " (Origen, Contra Celsum, iii. 29; ANF, iv. 476). The importance of the spiritual democracy is seen in Paul's epistles. The part represents the whole. What concerns one community concerns all. The identity of the local with the universal was encouraged by the preeminence given to the apostle who belonged to the whole church. Paul is to the several communities their teacher and father (I Cor. iv. 17, vii. 17, xiv. 37). But I Cor. xii.-xiv. is the clearest proof that the charismata are the decisive factors. What is reported of local authorities is different in different places. According to Acts presbyters were ordained by Paul and Barnabas (xiv. 23), and called together and warned to shepherd the Church of God. In I Thess. v. 12, Paul asks the community " to know them that labor among you, and are over you in the Lord and admonish you," and the following verses seem to be directed to these persons. In Galatians a local office is not mentioned, and the same holds good of Corinthians where, from the contents of the letter, mention of such an office seems to be expected. Along with apostles, prophets, and teachers are mentioned certain charisms and after them helps and governments. The same is true of Romans where organization comes into being through the charismata— among them are named prophecy, ministry, teaching, showing mercy, and ruling (xii. 6 sqq.). A certain Phcebe is mentioned as deaconess (xvi.), and different house communities are mentioned (xvi. 3 sqq.). In Colossians the community is directed to say to Archippus, " take heed to the ministry which thou hast received in the Lord, that thou fulfil it " (iv. 17). The word ministry may signify a part in the worship of the community. In Ephesians, a circular letter, the whole community
is spoken of as being built on the foundation of the apostles aud prophets (ii. 20, iii. 5) and a local office is mentioned and connected with apostles, prophets, and teachers — pastors and evangelists find a place in this list (iv. 11.; cf. Acts. xi. 8; II Tim. iv. 5; Eusebius, Hist, eccl., III., xxxvii.), the last being missionaries whose activity is purely local and who therefore can not claim the name of Apostle. Philippians is remarkable because its address contains the words bishops and deacons as the letter returns thanks for an offering (i. 1). Their office was probably connected with this act; the deacons have no accompanying genitive and there is no article, facts which point to an administrative position (see Deacon). The same must be said of the word " bishop " (see Episcopacy; Polity). Its significance is as ambiguous as that of presbyter, which may distinguish the elder from the younger, may be a title of honor signifying some special authority, personal or otherwise, or may indicate membership of a council, and be either of Jewish or autonomous origin (see Presbyter). The word bishop may be due to the usage of the Septuagint. It signifies overseer or superintendent. The object of oversight is uncertain, it may be souls (I Pet. ii. 25), or the church (Acts xx. 2S). It may mean oversight of economic or natural objects. The troubles related in II Corinthians do not indicate any tension between a local and the universal apostolic organization. It refers only to the operation of a clique grouping itself around different apostles.
The records extending from the time of Vespasian to that of Hadrian begin with I Pet. iv. 10-11 : " As every man hath received the gift, even so minister the same one to another as good stewards of the manifold grace of God. If any man speak, let him speak as the oracles of God; if any 3. New- man minister, let him do it as of the Testament ability which God giveth." Here Indications, organization is founded on the char- 69-138 A.D. isma, which itself constitutes a ministry. Later the author addresses the presbyters, calling himself a fellow presbyter (v. 1-2), who are opposed to the " younger " (v. 5), but the presbyters do not include all of those over a certain age, they are officials limited in number with the functions of pastors and duty of being examples to the flock (v. 2-3). This indicates a local office and in this light the stress laid on charismata in chap. iv. is remarkable. In James v. 14 presbyters of the Church are mentioned in connection with praying over and anointing the sick, while chap. iii. warns against multiplicity of masters. In the Epistle to the Hebrews presbyters are not mentioned but officers are, the general term used being hegoumenoi, which also occurs in Acts (xv. 22) as a designation of prophets (Heb. xiii. 17); possibly Heb. xiii. 7 refers to the apostles Peter and Paul. In the Apocalypse twenty-four presbyters are mentioned (chap, iv.) and a prophetess is named in Thyatira (ii. 20) but no local officer. The angels of the communities are not to be explained as bishops. The writer of the work appears as a superintendent of the communities. Twelve apostles are mentioned, also false apostles (ii. 2), and a reader in each community (i. 3). The author of the three Johan-