RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Organization
nine letters appears as a superintendent calling himself in II and III John presbyteros. He administers by letters and emissaries many communities as their head. He is strongly opposed and some of his adherents are excommunicated. The opposition comes from a man who loveth to have the preeminence, in other words, a local pastor. Demetrius seems to be a colleague of the person addressed in the letter. There is obviously a conflict here between the spiritual universal missionary organization and the local one (cf. Clement of Alexandria, Quis dives, xlii., for an account of John's activity in appointing bishops, pacifying churches, and founding a ministry on his missionary j ourneys) . In the Gospel apostles are warned against ambition (xiii. 13 sqq.) and there is a passage mentioning the bestowal on Peter of a universal pastoral office (xxi. 15 sqq.). The Pastoral Epistles show Titus and Timothy as representatives of the Apostles, they guard the teaching, they appoint officers and shepherd the communities. In Titus, the elders, both men and women, seem to have an official position (ii. 2 sqq.), presbyters are mentioned and their qualifications, and then follow at length the qualifications of a bishop (i. 5 sqq.) ; probably this is an interpolation, if so it refers to a monarchical bishop. In I Tim. v. elders, both men and women, young men and women, and widows in two classes, are carefully distinguished. Mention is made of presbyters; there is a long passage (iii. 1-13) discussing the qualifications of bishops and deacons introduced by the words " if any one desire the office of a bishop he desires a good work." The similarity with the passages in Titus suggests doubts as to the genuineness of both passages.
The First Epistle of Clement gives detailed references to the organization of the Church at the period it was composed. It is all the more valuable
because it comes from Rome and be-
4. Clement, cause it can be certainly dated. The
Hernias, the occasion of the letter was trouble in
Didache and the Corinthian community, a revolt
Polycarp. of the younger elements against the
older. The facts are as follows: The community is divided into presbyters and the younger element; those who lead are taken from the presbyters, hegoumenoi, prohegoumenoi (i. 3, iii. 3, xxi. 6) under these leaders. The letter from chap. xl. on is specially directed to those who conduct worship. These the author calls three times bishops and deacons. Their office is called episkope. They are appointed officials, admitted with the approval of the whole community. The function of the episkope is prinSarily and essentially divine worship; to offer the gifts, to read the liturgies (xl.2, xliv. 4). These officials also have the title of presbyter. Despite the significance of their position, the power belongs finally to the community (" to do whatever the majority commands," liv.). The author of the letter writes in the name of the Roman community. Those whom it sends to Corinth are not mentioned as clerical personages. From this it follows that the bishops and deacons, who are constantly named together and who have the common functions of the episkope or liturgy, belong, probably as appointed presbyters, to those who are
called " leaders." It does not follow, however, that the ministers of public worship are alone the " leaders." In addition to these facts Clement's Epistle adds theories and historical statements in relation to public worship. It connects Christian usages with the Old-Testament regulation of worship. The letter states that the appointment of bishops and deacons is prophesied in the Old Testament. It declares that the Apostles are sent from Christ, just as Christ was sent from God. It also asserts that our Apostles (i.e., Peter and Paul) had revealed to them that there would arise a difficulty over the episkope and for that reason they provided after their death that other approved men should undertake their services. The Epistle of Clement leaves the question of a monarchical episcopate at Rome open, but this possibility is excluded by Hermas, who also wrote in Rome and whose work must be dated in the course of the third decade of the second century. Hermas keeps in view not a local community, but the whole community of Christians. In his foreground stand apostles and teachers, belonging to a preceding generation, some of whom, however, are still alive. In the universal organization of the Church his order gives apostles, bishops, teachers, deacons. Bishops and deacons are associated together and their chief duty is caring for widows and orphans and the poor. Their service is called diakonia and leitourgia. Vision II., ii. 6 speaks of those who preside over the Church, who are also called " those who occupy the first seats," which means, all of those, whether they are prophets or teachers, to whom the community stands in the relation of receiving instruction. Precedence, as such, the author does not disapprove, his frown is only for those who are emulous concerning the first places and concerning fame and as fools indulge in rivalry (Similitude VIIL, vii. 4; ANF, ii. 42). This throws an important light on the organization of a monarchical episcopate. Hermas mentions presbyters in two places (Vision II., iv. 2, III., i.) — presbyters who rule over the Church, and he asserts that there are worthier persons in the Church than presbyters, namely, martyrs. The relation of these two groups remains imcertain. Perhaps " presbyters " in his mind were associated entirely with the local community. The existence of a monarchical episcopate can not be made to harmonize with the use of presbyters in the plural, or with bishops in the plural. The Didache in this respect resembles Hermas; it concerns itself with the whole community, and with local communities only as developments of it. It discusses the activities of apostles, prophets, and teachers. Those who speak the Word are to be honored as the Lord. Prophets are highly reverenced; criticizing them is an unforgivable sin. Prophets, it says (xiii. 3), are your high priests. In chap. xiv. services on Sunday and the solemn sacrifice are mentioned. Chap. xv. contains the following: " Elect therefore for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord, men meek and not lovers of money, and truthful, and approved; for they, too, minister to you the ministry of the prophets and teachers; they are honored along with prophets and teachers" (P Schaff, Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, pp. 211-
Organization