THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ing to kleros is ordo, which is frequently used by Tertullian also in a wider sense, but he expressly states that the distinction between clergy and laity is of postapostolic and ecclesiastical origin. Tertullian makes ordo include not only bishops, presbyters and deacons, but all who have received ordination. The clergy are called by him auctores. Even in Tertullian's day, the conception of the universal priesthood still endured: " Are not we laymen priests?" he says. A special priesthood need not be considered a derivation from Jewish custom, and heathen precedent is irrelevant. The origin of a specific priesthood is to be sought in the idea of a specific offering developing out of the conception of the communion (see Eucharist; Lord's Supper; Mass). This development took place at an early period, as we see from such ancient authorities as I Clement xliv. and Didache, xiv. The word priest in an ecclesiastical sense first appears in Tertullian. He calls the bishop a high priest, but presbyters were also recognized by him as priests. He speaks of a sacerdotal order (De exhortations, vii.), of sacerdotal gifts (De prascriptione, xxix., xli.), of a sacerdotal office (" On the Veiling of Virgins," ix.). Deacons were not given sacerdotal character because they did not take a principal part in the offering. This brought the presbyters into close relation with the bishops and separated them from deacons with whom there were special reasons that they should be assimilated. A power of absolution associated with the priesthood is first found in the third century, in its strict form in Cyprian. The rise of the monarchical episcopate fixed the various stages of the clergy and their duties. The bishop represents the community in public worship and in administration. The idea of an apostolic succession first appears at the close of the second century, its foundation lies in the conception of an oCice or calling handing down a system of teaching that is regarded as a deposit. A guaranty seemed to be given in this way through a chain of legitimate succession that no alteration could be made in the teaching. This idea was common to Roman constitutional law and to the schools of ancient philosophy. Before the episcopate, there was a recognized succession of teachers and prophets. The thought appears strongly expressed in II Tim. ii. 2: " And the things that thou hast heard of me among many witnesses, the same commit thou to faithful men, who shall be able to teach others also." It is easy to see how, as a matter of fact, such a succession came to be limited to bishops alone. The basis of the whole process comes from the fact that the twelve apostles were recognized as a form of apostleship. When the universal apostolate died out, the struggle with the Gnostic sects forced the Church back on eye witnesses and so brought forward the existence of an apostolic form of proof. The bishops were regarded as having by succession evangelical truth as a charism received from the apostles. This conception was first found in Irenapus and Tertullian. Pure apostolic teaching was associated not so much with an apostolic see as from the fact that the men who held it taught in harmony with the rest of the episcopate. Preliminary stages of this development are seen in the
earliest Christian literature. The prominence of certain bishops gave them weight as representing the apostolic character. An example of this is the community at Smyrna describing their Bishop Polycarp: " Polycarp being in our days an apostolic and prophetical teacher, bishop of the Catholic Church in Smyrna " (the letter of the church of Smyrna is quite fully transcribed in Eusebius, Hist, eccl., IV., xv., and is given in Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, part ii., pp. 947-948, London, 1885). The prominent position of such men was recognized by the heathen community as is seen from Lucian's writing on Peregrinus (De morte Peregrini), where he speaks of extraordinary honors given by Christians to those who preside over them. There soon arose a tradition that the apostles themselves had appointed bishops in several communities and hence came the custom of drawing up episcopal lists in Asia, Rome, and Lyons. But it was not before the year 220 that apostles themselves were set down in these lists as bishops of a community. In this elevation of a bishop of a community to equality with an apostle the presbyters still retained relative equality with them. Exactly what were the functions of a college of presbyters is uncertain. Where there was only one meeting for worship they probably had little significance; where there were many, a good deal.
Deacons originally were only slightly distinguished
from bishops. They were occupied in the service
during worship and in looking after the poor and
in pastoral cares. Their close association with the
episcopate made their elevation to it
8. Dis- easy. In Rome the archdeacon was
tinctions regularly advanced to the episcopate, within the There were, however, orders below Clergy. the stage of deacons, although in the second century there was no regularly systematized minor order of clergy. At this date there are on record orders of widows, virgins, and deacons, and lectors and exorcists are added. All of these were regarded as charismatic positions. Finally, confessors themselves were given special position in the ordo. As Tertullian says: " One of lower rank may attain to a higher if, in enduring persecution, he shall have taken an upward step " (De fuga, xi.). The distinctions of apostle and teacher gradually disappeared. Prophets ceased to exist last of all; their extinction was due to the Montanistic crisis. They are still found in the beginning of the third century teaching communities in Phrygia and in Egypt. The qualities demanded from the clergy after they had been tested and elected by the community were that they should have orderly households, should abstain from second marriages, should not engage in trade. As to the service of women in the Christian community they were kept strictly apart from the men (L. Zscharnack, Der Dienst der Fran in den ersten Jahrhunderten der christlichen Kirche, Gottingen, 1902; L. Stoecker, Die Frau in der alten Kirche, Tubingen, 1907.) The rights of the clergy as an order implied particular honor and obedience, the right of receiving support from the community, especial places of honor in divine service, and exemption from accusations except under particular conditions. But