THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
II. The Products: In Palestine, both anciently and in modern times, " live stock," or pastoral property (mikneh, " possession ") was composed principally of small cattle izori). How important an item this is, even at present, may be perceived from statistics for the administrative district about Jerusalem, where, even following some years of murrain, the report for 1905 shows 90,000 head, or forty-five to the square kilometer. These figures are below the actual count, since the local husbandmen manage to prevent exact returns in order to lessen their taxes. Moreover, the district in question is perhaps the poorest in cattle, the country east of the Jordan being much richer in this respect. Anciently the tale of flocks and herds was considerably more appreciable. The data that Job possessed 7,000 sheep and 1,000 oxen (Job i. 3), Nabal, 3,000 sheep and 1,000 goats (I Sam. xxv. 2), and that King Mesha paid an annual tribute of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 sheep (II Kings iii. 4) are quite within the bounds of probability.
The Palestinian sheep (seh = " sheep "; 'ayil = " ram "; rahel, " ewe "; kar, " fat lamb "; taleh, " unweaned lamb "; kebhes or kesebh, " yearling lamb ") belongs mainly to the fat-tailed, broadrumped species known as ovis laticaudata, or platyura (cf. H. B. Tristram, Natural Hist, of the Bible, p. 143, London, 1867). It is of medium size, with stout body, thin legs, fine crisp fleece, and a highset nose. The color is usually white (Isa. i. 18; Dan. vii. 9; Ps. cxlvii. 16*). The characteristic broad-tail weighs from eleven to thirty pounds. Another variety, similar to the Merino sheep, is found in North Palestine. Only the broad-tailed sheep is expressly mentioned in early times, since in every account of sacrifice of a sheep that variety {'ayil) is designated for the purpose as being especially valuable and belonging to God (Ex. xxix. 32; Lev. iii. 9, vii. 3, etc.). At all periods, sheep were the most usual animals for slaughter (I Sam. xxv. 18; II Sam. xii. 4, etc.), although flesh food was not a frequent article of diet in ancient times. Sheep were also the most usual animals for sacrifice (I Sam. vii. 9; Isa. i. 11; etc.). The ewes are especially prescribed for sin-offering and guiltoffering (Lev. iv. 32 sqq., v. 6), and in connection with the purification of lepers (Lev. xiv. 10). The ram was accounted a peculiarly worthy victim (Ex. xxix. 18), and is prescribed notably on occasion of great festival offerings, also as a guilt-offering (Lev. v. 15), and as the Nazirite's purifying oblation (Num. vi. 14). Together with the flesh, the fat milk is prized as food. Sheep-skins, slightly tanned, were used as mantles and wraps (see Dress, and Ornament, Hebrew). The most valuable product was the wool, from which the commonest and the most important articles of dress were made (Lev. xiii. 47 sqq.; Ezek. xxxiv. 3, etc.). For this reason sheep-shearing was conspicuously a time of rejoicing (I Sam. xxv. 4 sqq.; II Sam. xiii. 23 sqq.). This took place toward the end of April or the first of May. In the Bible this animal is mentioned in numerous figures of speech; and its patience (Jer. xi. 19; Isa. liii. 7) and stupidity were proverbial (Num. xxvii. 17; I Kings xxii. 17; Isa. liii. 6).
Along with sheep, the goat is also raised in many districts, being more numerous than sheep, especially in mountainous and arid regions, since it thrives where sheep can hardly be sustained, climbing along the steepest precipices where no sheep can range. In the Old Testament, the goat is frequently embraced along with the sheep under the common designation zon (ut sup.); on the other hand, the goat's distinct importance is attested by a number of terms applying only to itself ('ez, " goat "; 'ittud' sa'ir, etc., " he-goat "; gedhi, " kid "). In Palestine, two species are bred; the prevailing kind being the capra mambrica, with loosely drooping ears about eight inches long, smooth, sickle-shaped, recessive horns, and glossy black hair, both long and thick. In the north, on Mount Lebanon, two other varieties are found. Spotted goats are exceptional (Gen. xxx. 32 sqq.). More than half drop their young in December and January, which is the most favorable season for the kids, because, after sucking for two months, they still have abundant spring pasture. About one-fifth bring forth in the spring (March to middle of April) ; the kids of this season still have plenty of milk from the dam, but no longer the subsequent abundance of grass. Onetenth bear in June and July, and the kids remain weak and small, having but little milk from the dam, and finding too little grass. The young brought forth in autumn either die as soon as born, or perish in miscarriage. Goats and sheep graze together, but the two flocks will then keep somewhat apart (cf . Matt. xxv. 32), as they do also at night. The goats are fond of climbing along the steeps and browsing the brushwood. Goat's flesh was more esteemed in olden times than it is at present. In particular the kid was relished (Gen. xxvii. 9; Judges vi. 19, xiii. 15, xv. 1). The Israelites were forbidden to boil it in its mother's milk, the favorite way of preparing it in modern times (Ex. xxiii. 19). Goat milk was in general use (Prov. xxvii. 27), the skins were used for making vessels for water, wine, etc., while the hair was woven into a coarse cloth suitable particularly for tents (Ex. xxxvi.; Num. xxxi. 20; see Tent). The goat had value also for sacrifice. A he-goat might be used for either the burnt or the peace offering (Lev. i. 10, iii. 12, etc.), and was the animal usually required for the sin offering (Lev. iv. 23 sqq., v. 6, xvi. 5; Num. xv. 24, etc.). As a sacrificial offering the he-goat was always called sa'ir, " the hairy one," owing to the mythological belief that the hairy creature belonged to the deities of the under world (see Demon, Demonism, § 3). For this reason, it was a goat that was sent into the wilderness to Azazel on the Day of Atonement; and the wicked who are condemned to everlasting fire are the goats (Matt. xxv. 32 sqq.). The goat suggested to the poets many of their figures. The princes, as leaders of the people, are likened to the he-goats that go before the flock (Isa. xiv. 9, margin; Zech. x. 3, cf. Prov. xxx. 31; Jer. 1. 8), and unscrupulous rulers among the people are compared to violent he-goats that impose on the rest of the herd (Ezek. xxxiv. 19).
Neat-cattle were collectively called bakar (shor is a single animal, 'eleph is " one broken to the yoke "; par is a young but well-grown bullock