THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Polemics should be the last subject, and this should be so treated that the system of each sect would first be presented in its entirety and then be refuted. Rautenstrauch actively advocated the reforms of Joseph II., but was bitterly opposed by the Jesuits. Among his writings special mention should be made of his Institutiones juris ecclesiastici (Prague, 1769) and Synopsis juris ecclesiastici (Vienna, 1776). (J. J. HERZOof.)
Bibliography: C. von Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexicon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich, xxv. 67 sqq., Vienna, 1856 sqq.; ADB, xxvii. 459.
RAUWENHOFF, rau'ven-hef, LODEWIJK WILLEM ERNST: Dutch Protestant; b. at Amsterdam July 27, 1828; d. at Moran (15 m. n.w. of Bozen), Austria, Jan. 26, 1889. He was educated at the universities of Amsterdam and Leyden (1846- 1852), and was then minister at Mydrecht (1852- 1856), Dort (1856-59), and Leyden (1859-60). In 1860 he was appointed professor of church history at Leyden, a chair which he exchanged in 1881 for that of encyclopedics and the philosophy of religion. The latter position he retained until his death. Theologically Rauwenhoff was a pronounced and optimistic radical, utterly contemptuous of orthodoxy; but he crystallized the vague tendencies and concepts of the critical school of Dutch theology, instead of himself becoming a pioneer worker and leader. He was thus a natural advocate of the separation of Church and State and of the purely scientific teaching of theology in the universities. His attitude toward church history — that the facts of history are valuable only in their philosophic implications— finds its expression in his Geschiedenis van het protestantisms (3 vols., Haarlem, 1865-71), in which he proceeded from authoritative Christianity to an individualistic religion made to agree with science and the demands of modern life. The views of Rauwenhoff on the philosophy of religion were set forth in his Wijsbegeerte van den godsdienst (Leyden, 1887). He was also the author of many briefer contributions, one of the founders and editors of the Theologisch Tijdschrift, and for many years a member of the General Synod.
RAVENNA, ra-ven'na: Name of province, city, and archbishopric in northeastern Italy. The city is situated six miles from the Adriatic and seventytwo miles south of Venice. It was a naval station of the Romans under the Empire, and is, next to Rome, the most important city in Italy in connection with the history of Christian art, marking the transition from the early to the medieval from the fifth to the eighth centuries. Under Honorius (402 or 404) it became the seat of empire (402^76) and it was the capital of the Ostrogoth kings after 493 and the seat of the Byzantine exarchs, 539-752. Taken by the Lombards (q.v.) in 752, it was conquered by Pippin in 755 and presented to the pope. Traditionally, the apostle and first bishop of Ravenna was Apollinaris, a disciple of Peter (martyred c. 78). After the removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Ravenna the bishopric was raised to metropolitan dignity by Valentinian III.; and the first archbishop, according to one tradition, was Johannes Angeloptes, who died in 433. The
sway of the popes over the city, however, did not continue undisputed; the city was more or less dependent upon the archbishops and these in turn upon the resident emperors or exarchs. The schismatic Archbishop Maurus (648-671) rendered himself independent of the pope and was sustained by Emperor Constans II. For denying the right of consecration he was anathematized and in turn hurled the ban upon the pope. Reparatus (671- 677) and Theodorus (677-688) received the pallium from the emperor and were ordained by their suffragans. The conflict to maintain a complete independence of Rome continued in varying degrees until the end of the ninth century; and under Henry III., in 1044, Ravenna became a free imperial city and the archbishop an imperial vassal, with the result of repeated conflicts with the papal see (see Papal States). The disturbances between the Guelf s and the Ghibellines resulted in a vacancy, 1270-74. Ravenna was again attached to the papal realm after 1509 and 1815-60. The city has besides the cathedral (built 380) twenty-one churches. Most famous are the baptistery of San Giovanni (430) containing the earliest known mosaics and reliefs of the fifth century; the San Nazario e Celso, or the mausoleum of Empress Galla Placida, patroness of church-building, containing her huge sarcophagus. It is the earliest example of a vaulted cruciform structure surmounted at the intersection by a lofty dome. An example of the Gothic or Arian period is the San Apollinare Nuovo (504) built as the Arian cathedral. Surpassing all is the Byzantine San Vitale (526-547) commemorating the patron saint and martyr and copied after St. Sophia. An interesting and famous monument is the mausoleum of Theodoric the Great, built by himself about 520. It is known as the Rotonda or Santa Maria della Rotonda. The structure served in the Middle Ages as the church of the neighboring Benedictine monastery, but reverted in 1719 to its purpose as the memorial of the emperor. Here is also the famous tomb of Dante (q.v.) who came to this city in 1320. The present ecclesiastical province includes the suffragan bishoprics of Bertinoro and Soisina, Cervia, Cesena, Comacchio, Forli, and Rimini. Bibliography: Hieronymus Rubeus, Historiarum libn x., Venice, 1572; G. G. Ciampini, Vetera monimenta, 2 vols., Rome, 1690-99; A. F. von Quast, Die altchrUtlichen Bauwerke von Ravenna, Berlin, 1842; J. Hare, Cities of Northern and Central Italy, 3 vols., London, 1876; E. Freeman, Historical Essays, 3d series, London, 1879; C. Rioci, Cronache e Documenti per la Storia Ravennate, Bologna, 1882; idem, Ravenna, Ravenna, 1902; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols., i.-iii., Oxford, 1892- 1895; C. Diehl, Ravenne, Paris, 1903; Gams, -Series epwcoporum, pp. 716-718, and Supplement, p. 5; Muraton, Scriptores, vol. ii (contains the lives of early bishops of Ravenna) ; KL, x. 820-839.
RAVIGNAN, ra"vi"nyan', GUSTAVE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE LA CROIX DE: Roman Catholic; b. at Bayonne Dec. 2, 1795; d. in Paris Feb. 26, 1858. He was educated in the Lycee Bonaparte; studied law, and had already begun practising as an advocate in Paris, when he entered the order of the Jesuits and the Seminary of St. Sulpice. When the Jesuits were expelled from France, in 1830, he repaired to Switzerland, and became a teacher at Freiburg; but in 1835 he returned to France, and