THOMAS AQUINAS.
Life (§ 1).
Personality and Character (§ 2).
Writings (§ 3).
The Summa, part i.; Theology (§ 4).
The Summa, part ii.; Ethics (§5).
The Summa, part iii.; Christ (§ 6).
The Sacraments (§ 7).
Estimation (§ 8).
The birth-year of Thomas Aquinas is commonly given as 1227, but he was probably born early in 1225 at his father's castle of Roccasecca (75 m. e.s.e. of Rome) in Neapolitan territory. He died at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Son-
nino (64 m. s.e. of Rome), Mar. 7, 1274. i. Life. His father was Count Landulf of an
old high-born south Italian family, and his mother was Countess Theodora of Theate, of noble Norman descent. In his fifth year he was sent for his early education to the monastery of Monte Cassino, where his father's brother Sinibald was abbot. Later he studied in Naples. Probably in 1243 he determined to enter the Dominican order; but on the way to Rome he was seized by his brothers and brought back to his parents at the castle of S. Giovanni, where he was held a captive for a year or two and besieged with prayers, threats, and even sensual temptation to make him relinquish his purpose. Finally the family yielded and the order sent Thomas to Cologne to study under Albertus Magnus (q.v.), where he arrived probably toward the end of 1244. He accompanied Albertus to Paris in 1245,remained there with his teacher, continuing his studies for three years, and followed Albertus at the latter 's return to Cologne in 1248. For several years longer he remained with the famous philosopher of scholasticism, presumably teaching. This long association of Thomas with the great polyhistor was the most important influence in his development; it made him a comprehensive scholar and won him permanently for the Aristotelian method. In 1252 probably Thomas went to Paris for the master's degree, which he found some difficulty in attaining owing to attacks, at that time, on the mendicant orders. Ultimately, however, he received the degree and entered ceremoniously upon his office of teaching in 1257; he taught in Paris for several years and there wrote certain of his works and began others. In 1259 he was present at an important chapter of his order at Valenciennes. At the solicitation of Pope Urban IV (therefore
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Thomas the Apostle Thomas Aquinas
not before the latter part of 1261), he took up his residence in Rome. In 1269-71 he was again active in Paris. In 1272 the provincial chapter at Florence empowered him to found a new studium generate at such place as he should choose, and he selected Naples. Early in 1274 the pope directed him to attend the Council of Lyons and he undertook the journey, although he was far from well. On the way he stopped at the castle of a niece and there became seriously ill. He wished to end his days in a monastery and not being able to reach a house of the Dominicans he was carried to the Cistercian Fossanova. There, first, after his death, his remains were preserved.
Thomas made a remarkable impression on all who knew him, as represented in contemporary biographies. He was placed on a level with Paul and Augustine, receiving the title doctor angelicus. In 1319 the investigation preliminary 2. Person- to canonization was begun and on ality and July 18, 1323, he was pronounced a Character, saint by John XXII. at Avignon. Thomas is described as of large stature, corpulent, and dark-complexioned; he had a large head and was somewhat bald in front. His manners and bearing accorded with his noble birth; he was refined, affable, and lovable. In argument he maintained self-control and won his opponents by his superior personality and great learning. His tastes were simple and his requirements few. His associates were specially impressed by his power of memory; but the passion of his soul was the search for the truth involving the inner struggle for the knowledge of God. Absorbed in thought he often forgot his surroundings. His admirers honestly believed him to be inspired, and it was reported that Peter, Paul, and Christ instructed him in visions. What he attained by such strenuous absorption he knew how to express for others systematically, with remarkable clearness and simplicity. In his writings he does not, like Duns, make the reader his associate in the search for truth, but he teaches it authoritatively. Thomas became the teacher of his church and has always remained such. The consciousness of the insufficiency of his works in view of the revelation which he believed to have received was often to him an oppressive burden.
The writings of Thomas may be classified as, (1) exegetical, homiletical, and liturgical; (2) dogmatic, apologetic, and ethical; and (3) philosophical. Among the genuine works of the first class were: Commentaries on Job (1261-65); on Psalms i.-li., according to some a 3. Writings, reportatum, or report of oral deliverances furnished by his companion Raynaldus; on Isaiah; the Catena aurea (1475, and often; Eng. transl., ed. by J. H. Newman, 4 vols., Oxford, 1841-45), which is a running commentary on the four Gospels, constructed on numerous citations from the Fathers; probably a Commentary on Canticles, and on Jeremiah; and wholly or partly reportata, on John, on Matthew, and on the epistles of Paul, including, according to one authority, Hebrews i.-x. Thomas prepared for Urban IV., Offidum de corpore Christi (1264); and the following works may be either genuine or |
reportata: Expositio angelica; salutationis; Tractatus de decern prasceptis; Orationis dominica expositio; Sermones pro dominicis diebus et pro sanctorum solemnitatibus; and L. Pignon knows Sermones de angelis, and Sermones de quadragesima. Of his sermons only manipulated copies are extant. In the second division were: In quatuor sententiarum libros, of his first Paris sojourn; Questiones disputatm, written at Paris and Rome; Quwstiones quodlibetales duodecim; Summa catholicce fidei contra gentiles (1261-64); and the Summa theologian. To the dogmatic works belong also certain commentaries, as follows: Expositio in librum beati Dionysii de divinis nominibus; Expositiones prima et secundm decretalis; In Boethii libros de hebdomadibus; and Prmclarm quwstiones super librum Boethii de trinitate. A large number of opuscula also belonged to this group. Of philosophical writings there are calatogued thirteen commentaries on Aristotle, besides numerous philosophical opuscula of which fourteen are classed as genuine.
The greatest work of Thomas was the Summa and it is the fullest presentation of his views. He worked on it from the time of Clement IV (after 1265) until the end of his fife. When he died he had reached question ninety of part iii., on the subject of penance. What was lacking was afterward added from the fourth book of his commentary on the " Sentences " of Peter Lombard as a supplementum, which is not found in manu- 4. The scripts of the thirteenth and four- Summa, teenth centuries. The Summa was Part i. ; translated into Greek (apparently by Theology. Maximus Planudes, c. 1327), into Armenian, into many European tongues, and even into Chinese. It consists of three parts. Part i. treats of God, who is the " first cause, himself uncaused " (primum movens immobile) and as such existent only in act (actu), that is pure actuality without potentiality and, therefore, without corporeality. His essence is actus purus et perfectus. This follows from the fivefold proof for the existence of God; namely, there must be a first mover, unmoved, a first cause in the chain of causes, an absolutely necessary being, an absolutely perfect being, and a rational designer. In this connection the thoughts of the unity, infinity, unchangeableness, and goodness of the highest being are deduced. The spiritual being of God is further defined as thinking and willing. His knowledge is absolutely perfect since he knows himself and all things as appointed by him. Since every knowing being strives after the thing known as end, will is implied in knowing. Inasmuch as God knows himself as the perfect good, he wills himself as end. But in that everything is willed by God, everything is brought by the divine will to himself in the relation of means to end. Therein God wills good to every being which exists, that is he loves it; and, therefore, love is the fundamental relation of God to the world. If the divine love be thought of simply as act of will, it exists for every creature in like measure: but if the good assured by love to the individual be thought of, it exists for different beings in various degrees. In so far as the loving God gives to every being what it needs in relation
Thomas Aquinas