RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
* Zoroaster
ful, and later writings seem to have a polemic directed against Christian and Manichean asceticism. Penalties enjoined for breaches of the law are often useful labors either in the field or for the ritual service. Inhibitions of sexual intercourse where they exist rest in the main upon considerations of essential healthful propriety. Among the punishments prescribed are the killing of snakes or vermin (the creatures of Angra Mainyu), building of bridges over water, and making of ditches for irrigation. The cult involved a priesthood, called Athravan. The priests were held to a high level of obligation. It is noticeable that the Vendidad shows no traces of the self-seeking of the priesthood such as characterizes the Brahmanic writings of India. 8. The Cult. Priestly duties involved service not only at the temples but in the homes of the believers, particularly in the care of the sacred fire, the brewing of haoma, and the chanting of the liturgy. Training for the priesthood began at the age of seven and continued till at least fourteen, and the memorizing of Yasna and Vendidad seems to have been required. Sacrificial animals named are the horse, cow, lamb, and even the camel (Vendidad, xxii. 16-20). Special importance attached to the Baresma (Barsom), originally a bundle of twigs held by the priest while he recited the prayers (Vendidad, iii. 1, xix. 63). It is represented now by a bunch of silver rods varying in number from three to thirty-three. The Baresma was employed in the invocation to Ahura, the service for the dead, the offerings to the Yazatas and other spirits, including the Fravashis. Its virtues increase in the later periods of the religion, until by its offering the just are borne to paradise. Great emphasis was laid also upon haoma, a drink supposed to bring the participant into communion with God, and later becoming sacramental. Haoma seems to have been originally a deity of exhilaration, the apotheosized fermented drink (the intoxicating character is evident in Yasna, ix.—xi., note x. 18). The chief claim to the spirit thus apotheosized was that he is the “ holy one who driveth death afar.” Altogether novel is the place of the dog in the religion, so that two Fargards are taken up with the subject (Vendidad, xi.— xiv., cf. vill. 14 sqq., xv. 20-51). Killing of the animal is forbidden. Two “ four-eyed”’ dogs guard the Chinvat bridge (probably dogs with spots over the eyes), and a like animal expels from a corpse the “ corpse demon.”’ Since all that Ahura created was pure, healthful, and good, Angra Mainyu’s activities producing impurity, disease, and death, the effort of life was to avoid and banish the impure. In ritual, impurity is contact with something tainted by contact with the demons—with death or disease or deformity. All that passes from a man is impure, hence one may not breathe on the fire, nor for ceremonial purposes cleanse in the first instance in water. The dead may not be burned, nor buried unless first encased in wax or kindred substance, but exposed to carrion birds in “ towers of silence.” Funeral services for the dead are conducted on the three days succeeding the decease, with memorial services on the fourth, tenth, and thirtleth days and the annual anniversary. Priests are the celebrants, while the symbolic elements, fire and water and also
flowers and fruits, are used. Recollections from primitive times appear in the host of charms used, these parts of the Avesta being those that show the early character of part of the religious usages. The principle that underlies the entire code is the primitive one that offenses against the individual are far less dangerous than against the religion—spiritual beings—since these endanger all mankind by arousing the anger of the exalted spirits. Thus the solidarity of the Zoroastrian community is emphasized. To maintain the purity of the community in early times close intermarriage was practised, but in modern times observance of this is less stringent.
VIII. The Parsees: Modern Zoroastrians are known as Parsees (Parsis), and are found principally in India. After the Mohammedan conquest of Persia in 641, the Zoroastrians were in large part under the necessity of leaving the country in order to practise their religion, though scattered communities continued to exist there. The Island of Ormuz in the Persian Gulf was the first refuge, but was inadequate for a permanent home. A series of emigrations led them to Diu on the Gulf of Cambay on the western coast of India about 700. They settled in Guzerat, and in 721 built their fire temple; this was their home till about 1300, when the Moslem invasion of India again drove them away to take refuge in such places somewhat inland as Broach, Surat, and Thana. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese attempted to force their conversion to Christianity, but the advent of the British in India in the early part of the seventeenth century brought relief from pressure. On the occupation in 1668 of Bombay by the British East India Company as its seat of power, the Parsees made that city their headquarters. Many of them took service with the company in a wide variety of capacities. They have ever since displayed a remarkable readiness to adapt themselves to modern conditions, and the Parsee community as a whole is noted for its wealth and culture. Their industrial, educational, and charitable enterprises are of a very high type, and they regard as a disgrace to the community the existence of the few Parsee beggars that remain. Small Parsee communities still exist in Persia, chiefly in Yezd, where perhaps 8,000 Parsees (known as Tranis to distinguish them from their Indian brethren) still live. In India there are not far from 100,000 professing this religion, nearly all of whom are in the Bombay presidency. They claim to have preserved the pure faith taught by Zoroaster, and their principal beliefs and practises may be gathered from the following extracts from a Parsee catechism.
In whom do we, of the Zarthosti community, believe?
We believe in only one God, and do not believe in any beside him.
Who is that one God?
The God who created the heavens, the earth, the angels, the stars, the sun, the moon, the fire, the water, or all the four elements, and all things of the two worlds: that God we believe in, him we worship, him we invoke, him we adore.
Do we not believe in any other god?
Whoever believes in any other gcd but this is an infi-
del, and shall suffer the punishment of hell. What is the form of our God?
Our God has neither face nor form, color nor shape,
nor fixed place. There is no other like him; he is him-
Zoroaster Zschokke
self singly such a glory that ‘ve can not praise or describe him, nor our mind comprehend him. Is there any such thing that God can not create it?
Yes, there is one thing that God himself even can not
create.
What that thing is must be explained to me.
God is the creator of all things; but if he wish to create another like himself, he can not do it. God can not create another like himself.
How many names are there for God?
It is said that there are 1,001 names; but of these 101 are extant.
Why are there so many names of God?
God’s names, expressive of his nature, are two— Yazdan (“omnipotence”) and Pauk (“holy’’). He is also named Hormuzd (the highest of spirits), Dadar (the distributor of justice), Purvurdegar (provider), Purvurtar (protector), by which names we praise him. There are many other names also, descriptive of his good doings.
What is our religion? Our religion is worship of God. Whence did we receive our religion?
God’s true prophet—the true Zarthost Asphantaman
Anosirwan—brought the religion for us from God. Where should I turn my face when worshiping the holy Hormuzd?
We should worship the holy just Hormuzd with our face toward some of his creations of light and glory and brightness.
Which are those things?
Such as the sun, the moon, the stars, the fire, water, and other such things of glory. To such things we turn our face, and consider them our Kibleh (‘‘the thing opposite’’), because God has bestowed upon them a small spark of his pure glory, and they are therefore more exalted in the creation, and fit to be our
What commands has God sent us through his prophet, the exalted Zarthost?
Many are those commands, but I give you the principal, which must always be remembered, by which we must guide ourselves. To know God as one; to know the prophet, the exalted Zarthost, as his true prophet; to believe the religion, and the Avesta brought by him, as true beyond all manner of doubt; to believe in the goodness of God; not to disobey any of the commands of the Mazdiashna religion; to avoid evil deeds; to exert for good deeds; to pray five times in the day; to believe in the reckoning and justice on the fourth morning after death; to hope for heaven and to fear hell; to consider doubtless the day of general destruction and purification (of all suffering souls); to remember always that God has done what he willed, and shall do what he wills; to face some luminous object while worshiping
God. Gro. W. GiLMorE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For a survey of the literature use E. Wilhelm, Catalogue of Books on Iranian Literature, Bombay, 1901. Many of the books noted below contain lists of books and of discussions, notably those by A. V. W. Jackson. Texts of the Avesta to be noted are: K. F. Geldner, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1886-96 (best); E. Burnouf, Paris, 1829-43 (Vendidad Sade); H. Brockhaus, Leipsic, 1850 (Vendidad Sade); N. L. Westergaard, Copenhagen, 1852-54; F. Spiegel, 2 vols., Vienna, 1853-58 (Yasna, Vispered, Vendidad); M. Haug, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1858— 1860 (five Gathas); C. Bartholomae, Halle, 1879 (Gathas) ; L. H. Mills, Leipsie, 1892-94 (Gathas); Antia, Bombay, 1901 (Wendidad Sade); M. M. Gandavia, Bombay (Vendidad); M. N. Dhalla, The Nyaishes or Zoroastrian Litanies, New York, 1909. Eng. transls. by J. Darmesteter and L. H. Mills arein SBE, vols. iv., xxiii., xxxi.; Fr. transls. of the whole or parts are by J. Thonnelier, Paris, 1855-62; C. de Harlez, 2d ed., ib. 1881; J. Darmesteter, 3 vols., ib. 1892-93; Germ. transls. are by M. Haug, Leipsic 1858-60 (five Gathas); F. Spiegel, 3 vols., ib. 1852-63 (re. produced in Eng. transl. by Bleeck, London, 1864); partial transl. in F, Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien Vienna, 1868; C. Geldner, Stuttgart, 1884 (three Yashts), C. Bartholomae, Strasburg, 1905 (the Gathas); F. Wolff, ib. 1910. Editions of Pahlavi literature that may be noted are the Dinkart by D. B. Sanjana, 6 vols., Bombay 1874-91; the Bundahish, by N. L. Westergaard, Copen-