In the year 58 tlie Emperor proposed to establish ' free trade.' The object of this proposal was to relieve the people and to get rid of a method of taxation attended with much injustice. The pro- ducers and capitalists, on whom extra burdens would thus have been imposed, were able to strangle the scheme at birth. The Imperial purse, depleted through extravagance, was replenished by confiscation. About 61 or 62 began the de- preciation of the gold and sUver coinage, from which Rome never completely recovered. Nero also deprived the Senate of the right to issue copper coinage. This was a serious blow, as the exchange value of the copper always exceeded the value of the metal, and the Senate could thus coin credit- money to any amount. On 19th July, A.D. 64, the great fire in Rome broke out ; it lasted for a week, and destroyed an immense area of jiroperty. The occasion was used to build broader streets and finer buildings. The reign of Nero is conspicuous for the lives of prominent Stoics, particularly Pietus Tlirasea, men of courage and virtue among the noblest the world has ever .seen. They stood for the old republican regime, and were particularly in evidence in the Senate. These, as well as rich
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men in no way connected with tlieni, were victims of a policy of wliolesale murder associated with the last six years or so of Nero's reign. It was not surprising that, while the generality of the Senate were paralyzed with terror, a powerful conspiracy should have arisen against the maniac on the tlirone. Tlie leader chosen was C. Calpurnius I'iso, and the plot had been brewing since 62. In 65 all the arrangements were complete, but at the eleventli hour the Emperor was informed, and Piso, Seneca the philosopher, Lucan, the author of the rhetorical epic De Bella Civili (often, but wrongly, called Pharsalia), and others, met their death. Nero's own fall was the result of the revolt of C. lulius Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugudunensis, with whom Galba, the governor of Hispania Tar- raconensis, allied himself. Vinde.x was defeated by Verginius Rufus, governor of Southern Germany, but Galba became Emperor.
External atl'airs during Nero's reign bulk more largely than internal. Two provinces were added to the Roman Empire— Pontus Polemoniacus in Northern Asia Minor, by the gift of Polemo, and the Alpes Cottite, on tlie death of Cottius (Suet. Nero, 18). But it was in the extreme east on tlie one hand, and the extreme west on the other, that the most important events took place — in Armenia and in Britain. Britain had been made a province in 43, but pacification was impossible witliout hard and exhausting warfare. Real pro- gress was made under the governorship of Sueton- ius Paulinus, who in 61 captured Mona (Anglesey). There followed a great rising of the Iceni (under Boudicca) and the Trinouantes. Camalodunum (Colchester), the Roman colonia, was burnt, and Londinium and Verulamium (St. Albans) were captured by the insurgents. A great slaugliter of the Romans and their allies was followed by the victory of Paulinus and the suicide of Boudicca.
The Eastern campaigns of Nero's reign are im- perishably connected with Gnieus Domitius Cor- bulo, one of the greatest generals of the Roman Empire. There had been for some time a struggle between the Romans and the Parthians, tlieir hereditary enemies, for the possession of Armenia. Rival pretenders to the throne of that country were supported, one by Rome, the other by Parthia. When Nero came to the throne, a Par- thian prince, Tiridates, was ruling over Armenia. Corbulo's troops at first were insufficient and many of them were unfit for service. Much time was lost in training them and in parleying with Tiri- dates. Artaxata was captured in 58. The sur- render of Tigranocerta resulted in the defeat of Tiridates and the establishment of a new king in 60, but circumstances led to an arrangement with Parthia by which Tiridates was permitted to return in the next year. This arrangement was not ratified by the home government, and Armenia had to be conquered again. The new governor of Cappadocia, Lucius Csesennius Pfetus, proved in- competent, and his army had to capitulate. Cor- bulo declined to interfere. Psetus was recalled, and Corbulo undertook the government of Cappa- docia. The result was that Tiridates had to go to Rome and receive his crown from Nero as a sup- pliant (A.D. 66). Corbulo's success throughout seems to have been due in part to his skilful subordinate, Vettius Bolanus (Statins, Siluai, v. ii. 31-47), but it did not prevent his suicide by Nero'scommand in Greece (A.D. 67). The severe discipline and hardship of these Oriental campaigns provide a contrast to the Imperial excesses at Rome. The spread of Christianity to Western Europe presents another.
The latter part of St. Paul's missionary activity coincides with Nero's reign. It was to Nero's tribunal that St. Paul appealed (Ac 25") ; it was
also amcmg the slaves and freedmen of his house- hold that lie found many of iiis fellow-Christians in Rome (Ph 4-- ; cf. Ro 16). It was on a cai)ital charge that St. Paul had been arraigned, and in such cases a Roman citizen could appeal frf)m the court of a jrroiiirator to the Emperor him- self. There are inconsistencies in the Acts nar- rative (cf. Mommsen's article mentioned below, pp. 92, 93 = p. 443) of the preliminaries, but we need nave no doubt that St. Paul did as a matter of fact appear before the Emperor in Ronie. Whether aiMjuittal or condemnation was the result, and whether in the former case St. Paul had to stand a second trial, which resulted in condemnation, are questions which lie outside the scope of the present article. Whatever be the truth in this matter, there is a consensus of opinion that Nero was the first Emperor to persecute the Christians. The Church always believed this (cf. Ambrosiaster, writing in Rome about 375, in S Thess. 2' : ' mys- terium iniquitatis a Nerone coeptum est, qui zelo idolorum et apostolos interfecit,' etc.), and, accord- ing to a very early interpretation of the number of the Beast in the Apocalypse (13'*), Neron l^^esar is there referred to (confirmed by a Western variant, 616, which means the Latin form Nero, as against the Greek form Neron, 666-616 being = 50, represented in Greek by v[,n]). The narrative of Tacitus (Ann. XV. 44) connects the evil treatment of the Christians with the great fire of the year 64. The Emperor's behaviour on that occasion was in many ways to be commended, but the story that he sat on the roof of his palace playing the harp during the con- flagration (add Augustine, Sermons, ccxcvi. 7, to the authorities usually quoted) makes the narrative of the horrible death of the Christians, condemned for incendiarism, quite credible. The first Chris- tians met their death in Rome as scapegoats, not because it was illegal to be a Christian. 'That stage is later ; how much later is debated.