PHYSICIAN
PHYSICIAN
237
Sickness was referred to supernatural af^encies. The cult of Askleiiios was transferred to Koine in 291 B.C., and the worship was with ' super.'ititious rites and ceremonies. ' Everj' function of life was pre- sided over by a divinity ; therajieutic agencies were magical, through sin-oil'ering, invocations, omens, ami the like. There was no scientilic medicine. In his Natural History Pliny devotes many pages to a description of the ancient popular medicine, a crude empiricism mingled with fantastic and superstitious formulse ; but even he makes no dis- tinction between scientilic and purely traditional domestic methods. Medicine was partly in the hands of priests, and partly consisted ot popular practice and rough surgery. Votive otfermgs of bronze and alabaster disclose the limitations in Etruscan anatomical knowledge. Gymnastic as- sistants in Greece came to Rome and set up in the practice of their profession. Other Greek arts had come to Rome, but owing to Roman prejudice medicine lagged behind. Archagathos was among the first, although not the first Greek physician, as Pliny states (HN x.xix. 6), to come from the Pelo- ponnesos ; he arrived in 219 B.C. Extraordinarily successful, and at length emboldened by his fame, he undertook so many serious cases of cutting and burning that he was dubbed ' carnifex ' and driven from the city. Later, Asklepiades of Prusa (Bithjmia), born about 124 B.C., reconciled the Romans to Greek medicine. An adherent of atomism, he won the favour of the influential Epicureans at Rome. He rejected the Hippokratic axiom that nature is the healer of disease ; often nature does not help but even hinders recovery. His principal significance lay in therapeutics ; he relied mainly on diet, hygiene, and physical and medical treatment.
In 49 B.C. all Greeks, and therefore Greek physicians, were made freedmen by Julius Csesar. This action led to two results : it increased tlie number of Greek physicians in Rome, and it gave them a prestige which they had not before enjoyed. In his Natural History (xxix. 8) Pliny wrote that those who adopt the Greek language in their prescriptions, no matter what their pre- tensions, nor how serious the peril, are fully believed. For a century and a half after 25 B.C. a galaxy of Greek physicians practised in Rome, all of whom were natives of Asia Minor. Themi- son of Laodicea (born c. 50 B.C.), founder of the methodic sect, sought for the symptoms of disease with a common sign, in distinction from Asklepi- ades, who inquired after the cause. He recognized only three forms of disease — rigidity or congestion, relaxation, and a combination of these two with one or other contlition preponderating. The treat- ment was to relax for congestion, to constrict for relaxation. Prophylactic measures were also prac- tised. He was the first to make use of leeches. The strict methodists conceded neither specific disease nor specific remedies, anddisallowed such medicines as purgatives, emetics, diuretics, and emmen- agogues. The school increased rapidly, since it was so easy to complete the preparation. Thessalos of Tralles in Lydia announced himself as able to train physicians in six months. Among his pupils were smiths, dyers, and cobblers. He dedicated to Nero his writings, in which he treated of diet, chronic disease, and surgery. He taught his pupils at the bedside of his patients. Scribonius Largus (c. A.D. 47) dedicated to Claudius, whom he had accompanied on an expedition to Great Britain, a collection of 271 formulfe for treatment of every portion of the body, from head to foot. These were in part from Greek sources, and in part from secret remedies got by bribery from physicians and quacks at health resorts ; some were popular, others magical and fantastic.
He was the first to describe the method of abstract- ing opium and of apjilying electricity for severe headache. Uioskurides of Anazarba near Tarsus in Cilicia, perhaps a contemporary of Pliny, simplified pharmacology, relieving it of all super- stitious remedies, and wrote the first book on this subject, Ilcpi 0\j)s larptKiji, in A.D. 77 or 78. This consisted of five books, and included the three kingdoms. He also wrote on poisons and anti- dotes, and on poisonous beasts. He was familiar with all the plants of Arabia and Asia Minor, and in a single book he describes these with such exactitude that they have been identified by modern botanists. To him we owe descriptions of ginger, pepper, gentian, aloes, and wormwood, and also metallic agents such as quicksilver, acetate of lead, and co]iper oxides. A. Cornelius Celsus, not indeed of Greek birth, drew all his inspiration from Greek sources. Probably not a practising physician, not perhaps even medically trained, he wrote in the first half of the century eight books on medicine, including diet and hygiene, general and special-pathology, and surgery. Particularly famous are his descriptions of litho- tomy, operation for cataract, and obstetrics.
In the middle of the 1st cent, there arose a new school, the Pneumatics, who would explain all diseases by reference to ' vital air ' ; pneuma takes the place of humours in disease and health. The school was founded by Athenaios of Attaleia in Pamphj'lia. He paid much attention to air. Mater, food-stufi's, influence of different climates on health, exercise, baths, mineral waters, dietetics ratlier than drugs. For the sake of its value in sexual development he advocated physical as well as mental training for youth. Women were to find in their domestic and social activity a means of health. Archigenes of Apamea in Syria completed the study of the pulse, wrote on drugs, especially hellebore. He was skilful as a surgeon and phar- macologist. In therapeutics he made use of amu- lets for their value in suggestion. He was not above preparing hair-dye for ladies of high rank. He operated for cancer and used the vaginal specu- lum. Aretaios (at the close of the 1st cent.) was equalled only by Hippokrates in the description of diseases and in the principles of therapy. For the most part he advocated mild remedies, and held that even if the patient were hopelessly and pro- tractedly ill, the duty of the physician toward him was not relaxed. Rufus of Ephesus, who also practised medicine in the reign of Trajan, was educated at Alexandria. He derived his anatomi- cal knowledge from the dissection of monkeys. Soranos of Ephesus, who received his medical and anatomical training in Alexandria, was the most famous obstetrician of antiquity. One learns from him what were the most approved methods of practice in this department of medicine. In him the methodic school culminated.