7. The rudder {ir-qSaXiov, 27*" ; cf. Ja 3*).— The Greek word comes from a root meaning ' the blade of an oar' ; hence a rudder was primarily a broad float oar or paddle. It was probably hung by straps or ropes from the after part of the ship, and was managed by the steersman or master of the vessel (KviiipvrfTi)^). When not in use, as for exami>le in harb<rar, it was made fast either to the side of the ship or on deck. When a vessel was on the verge of running aground, the rudder was loosed to carry the ship up the beach (27*'). Of the rudder, also, a striking figurative use is made by the ajiostlc James in speaking of the tongue ; he sa3's that, as a little rudder can ttirn about a great ship, so the tongue can control the whole nature of man (3^- °).
8. Helps (27", 'They u.sed helps, undergirding the ship,' /ioi)tfe(oi5 ^XP^"'''"! in^oj^wvi/inTes t4 irXoiof). —
476
SHIP
SHOE, SANDAL
These were cables for untlerginling and strengthen- ing the hull especially in hail weather, in order to prevent the sliip's tiniberH from yielding under strain. The vessels of the Kunians were so loosely built that they had to be flapped. This was done either lengthwise round the ship from stem to stern above the water-line (as Breusing and Torr are disposed to think) or transversely, aniidship under the keel, encircling the vessel (as Balnier, J. Smith, and others). The verb ' undergirding' favours the latter view, though both processes may have been in vogue.
9. Tackling (o-KemJ, •27'"). — A comprehensive term including all the ship's necessary furniture, its fittings and equipment, everything movable lying on deck or anywhere about, not in actual use — these were cast overboard the third daj'.
10. The little boat {v (rKd<pr,, 27'"- '"■ ^=).— Every large merchant ship probably had one or more sucli skill's to serve as life-boats. They were usually towed behind. That attached to St. Paul's ship was dragging water-logged astern, until, under the lee of Cauda, it was taken up for greater security (27'"). When the sailors felt that danger was imminent, they began to lower it in order to escape to land (27™), but St. Paul promptly detected their scheme and reported them to the centurion, whereupon it was cut loose and dropped overboard (27^-).
11. Ropes (crxoiWa, 27^^).— These held the little life-boat, but, being cut, the boat was allowed to fall oti' into the sea. No incident in the voyage shows so well the faith which the soldiers had in St. Paul.
12. Sign (irapa(!i]fiov, 28"). — Roman ships bore individual ensigns. That on which St. Paul left Melita bore the sign ' Dioscuri,' the Twin Brothers, referring to the heroes Castor and Pollux, the twin sons of Zeus, who were generally regarded as protectors of voyagers. In (ireek mythology they were the heroes of many adven- tures, and were worshipped as divinities, particu- larly by Dorians and at Rome. To them, as the patron deities of the seamen, this third ship was dedicated. Why the ensign of this particular vessel should be given is not clear, but perhaps it was because of the captain's courage in starting in winter (February?) on so perilous a voyage — Melita to Puteoli. Sometimes eyes also were painted or sculptured on the prows of vessels (cf. 27", ivr- o()>$a.\ixdv, lit. ' to look at the wind eye to eye '). The hull, too, was often painted and decorated, the ornament on the stern-post being commonly a swan or a goose-head. From the hull (Trpi'i/ii'a, 27-°) rose the flagstatl" which carried the pennant.
13. Speed, winds, currents, direction, etc. — A vessel's rate of sailing de|iended mucli upon the wind. The voyage from Troas to Philippi St. Paul made on one occasion apparently in two days (Ifi"- '''), whereas on another it required live (20"). With a fair wind, Roman ships ordinarily averaged, it is reckoned, seven knots an hour. Being rigged like modern Chinese junks, they were peculiarly well fitted to make good speed before the wind. When tlie winds were unfavourable, ships could be made to sail ' within seven points of the wind ' ; for example, St. Paul's vessel maintained a N. W. W. course from Cauda to Melita in spite of an E.N.E. Euraquilo, or north-easter (27'''). Roman sailors knew also how to make use of the currents of the Mediterranean. Thus, the ship of Adramyttium sailed northward from Sidon under the lee of Cyprus against winds that were contrary (27*), probably helped somewhat by a coast current which flows in that direction. In a very severe storm, sailors made their ships ' lie to,' the object being, not to make progress, but to ride out the gale, as under the lee of Cauda (27"'"). But with
vessels of only moderate size, rigged with sails un- equally distributed over the deck, and having at best very imi)erfect charts, and with no compass, shipwrecks were of common occurrence. Sailing was avoided as much .as possible in the winter season because the heavens were then frequently clouded and it was impossible to take observations (27-" 28"). Plumb-lines were carried for purposes of sounding (27-"), and po.ssibly other instruments, such as windlas.ses ; but the science of navigation in apostolic times was still in its infancy.
Most remarkable is the fact that before setting out to sea it was customary even among tlie Greeks and Romans to supplicate the protecting deities for a prosperous voyage (cf. Wis 14', Jon P).