The notion of a double morality came into Cliristianity very early. It is possibly found in the Didacke, vi. 2, and in Hennas (see C. E. Luthardt, Histoj-y of Christian Elhir.s, tr. W. Hastie, Edin- burgh, 1889, p. 126), but not in the NT. The NT ethics is of a piece, having a definite origin and a single aim. What is distinctive of the NT is not the precise determination of the sphere of different virtues or their place in a fixed catalogue — that is after all a scholastic problem — but rather the emphasis on their origin in the action of the Spirit of God in the soul (they are the fruit of the Spirit) and consequently on their inwardness and per- vasiveness, thoughts and desires, aims and inten- tions, as well as actions being seriously taken into consideration. The influence on temperance of the doctrine of tlie Resurrection, e.g., is so profound that this virtue like all the rest is totally trans- formed, and, though often we may describe it as Plato or Aristotle would, we feel that we are in a new world, where virtues have new meanings and new values. We are in a realm where Divine grace and the hope of Christ's appearing are distinctly operative (Tit 2'-'-). We cannot therefore fix the meaning of these virtues by reference to these lists ; they must be explained in the light of the whole Christian life. The aim of such lists is practical, and in practice now one virtue and now another has to be emphasized, one virtue may now be the cause and now the effect of another. Christianity deals with the personality as a whole, not in parts.
2. 'EYKpareio viewed analytically — its sphere and contents described. — "E.yKpiTeLa. liad a long ethical history behind it in St. Paul's time. The non-ethical meaning does not concern us here.* Aristotle [Eudem. Eth. vli.) gives us the prevalent notions concerning it in his own day and tries to fix its intension and extension by criticizing these notions. According to him, the word was sometimes used vaguely in a wide sense so as to include control of all passions, emotions, and actions. He points out, however, that as a rule in these cases the word was not used simpliciter, but with the sphere indicated by the presence of a defining substantive, e.g. ' teni iterate as regards fame,' etc. Tlie ambiguity as to the range of the word, however, is due to the fact that this was not always done. Ordinary speech is notoriously inexact. For this reason we cannot be sure liow much the Apostle means to cover by it in Tit 1°. The Greek commentators took it in the wide sense — control of the tongue, the hand, and the eyes, the not being dragged down by any passion ; but
* The non-ethical meaning occura in 2 Mac 1015- 17 : oi 'I6ou/xatoi cyKparets eiriKatpoti/ oxvptoixdrotv ofres, * being masters Of important strongiiolds ' ; e-yxpaTei? eyeVocro ratv TOTToiVy ' they made themselves masters of tlie positions.'
it is safer to regard it as referring mainly to self- control in the matters of eating and drinking and lust. In the OT, however, the verb is used simpliciter in the wide sense. Joseph, in order to control his emotion before his brethren, went into his chamber and wept there ; then he came out and had control over himself ((^eXduiv /ueKpaTei'iiraTo, Gn 43^'). It is to be noted tliat here the term is used for control over generous impulses, which might have (by premature disclosure) spoiled their own good intentions. We see here what St. Peter may have had in his mind by making knowledge an element in .self-control. He himself had lacked true self-control in the excess of noble impulses ungoverned by knowledge, as when he drew the sword for his Master's sake. St. Paul also has this in mind when he tells the Philippians that their love should increase in knowledge (Ph V) and every perception. Beneficence and charity may be spoiled by lack of insight, by being beforehand with their gifts. ' What he desires and asks of them in the matter of charity is not more sacrifice, in which regard the Macedonian Churches had already distinguished themselves (2 Co 8'"- U', 1 Th 4"), nor that simplicity in giving which he so often commends (Ro 12", 2 Co 9", Ja 1', Mt 6^), but rather the opposite — a clear insight into and a careful consideration of the circumstances and con- ditions under which their charity may be exercised consistently with uprightness and good order' (T. Zahn, Intr'od. to the NT, Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1909, i. 527). Thus we see that there may be intemper- ance in generosity, in charity, and in the very highest qualities of the soul. Very different from the temperance of Joseph is the false temperance of Saul. He offered sacrifice in Samuel's absence and thus exonerates him.self : ' I overcame myself, and ottered the holocaust ' {^veKjjaTeuffdfnjv Kai av-qveyKO. TTjv oKoKavTuxTiv), 1 S 13'" (LXX 1 Kiugs). What appeared to Saul temperance Avas really lack of faith and lack of patience, and often we see men whose aims are good intemperate in their methods and in their haste. From these examples it is clear that the word ' temperance ' may be used in the very widest sense.