8. Collections of houses in Syria for social habitation may be classed under three heads: (1.) cities; (2.) towns, with citadels or towers for resort and defence ; (8.) unwalled villages. The cities may be assumed to have been in almost all cases "fenced cities," L e. possessing a wall with towers and gates (Lev. xxv, 29; Deut. ix, 1 ; Josh, ii, 15 ; vi, 20; 1 Sam. xxiii, 7 ; 1 Kings iv, 18; 2 Kings vi, 26; vii, 8; xviii, 8, 18; Acts ix, 25) ; and that, as a mark of conquest was to break down a portion at least of the city wall of the captured place, so the first care of the defenders, as of the Jews after their return from captivity, was to re- build the fortifications (2 Kings xiv, 13, 22 ; 2 Chron. xxvi, 2, 6; xxxiii, 14; Neh. iii, iv, vi, vii j 1 Mace, iv, 60,x61; X, 45; Xen. EelL ii, 2, 15). But around the city, especially in peaceable times, lay undefended suburbs (I Chron. vi, 67 sq. ; Num. xxxv, 1-6; Josh, xxi), to which the privileges of the city extended. (See below.) The city thus became the citadel, while the population overflowed into the suburbs (1 Mace, xi, 61). The absence of walls as indicating security in peace- able times, combined with popnlousness, as was the case in the flourishing period of Egypt, is illustrated by 'the prophet Zechariah (ii, 4; 1 Kings iv, 26; see Martineau, East. Life, i, 806).
According to Eastern custom, special cities were appointed to furnish special supplies for the service of the state : cities of store, for chariots, for horsemen, for building purposes, for provision for the royal table. Special governors for these and their surrounding dis- tricts were appointed by David and Solomon (1 Kings iv,7; ix, 19; 1 Chron. xxvii, 25; 2 Chron. xvii, 12; xxi, 8 ; 1 Mace, x, 89 ; Xen. Anab. i, 4, 10). To this practice our Lord alludes in his parable of the pounds, and it agrees with the theory of Hindoo government, which was to be conducted by lords of single town- ships, of 10, 100, or 1000 towns (Luke xix, 17, 19 ; see ElpUnstone, India, ch. ii, i, 89, and App, v, p. 485). To the Levites 48 cities were assigned, distributed throughout the country, together with a certain amount of suburban ground, and out of these 48, 13 were spe- cially reserved for the fomily of Aaron, 9 in Judah and 4 hi Benjamin, and 6 as refbge cities (Josh, xxi, 13, 42), but after the division of the khigdoms the Le- vites in Israel left thehr cities and resorted to Judah and Jerusalem (2 Chron. xi, 18, 14). (See below.)
4. The internal government of Jewish cities was vested before the Captivity in a council of elders, with Judges, who were requhred to be priests: Josephus says seven judges, with two Levites as officers, irTnypi- rat (Deut xxi, 5, 19; xvi, 18; xix, 17; Ruth iv, 2; Josephus, Ani, iv, 8, 14). Under the kin^ra a president or governor appears to have been appointed (1 Kings
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CITY OF REFUGE
zxii, 26; 2 Chron. xviii, 25); and jodget were aent out on circuit, wlio referred matters of donbt to a ooon- cil composed of priests, Levites, and elders at Jerusa- lem (1 Chron. xxiii, 4; xxvi, 29; 2 Chron. xix, 6, 8, 10, 11). After the Captivity, Ezra made similar ar- rangements for the appointment of judges (Esra vii, 25). In the time of Josephus there appear to have been councils in the provincial towns, with presidents in each, under the directions of the great council at Jerusalem (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 9, 4; War^ ii, 21, S; Life, 12, la, 27, 84, 57, 61, 68, 74). See Sahhbdrim.
In many Eastern cities much space is occupied by gardens, and thus the size of the cities is much in- creased (Niebuhr, Vojfoge, ii, 172, 239 ; Conybeare and Howsoo, i, 96; Eothen^ p. 240). The vast extent of Nineveh and of Babylon may thus be in part account- ed for (Diod. ii, 70; Quint. Curt v, i, 26; Jonah iv, 11 ; see Chardin, Foy. vii, 278, 284 ; Porter, Damascm, i, 153 ; P. della Yalle, ii, 83). In most Orientol cities the streets are extremely narrow, seldom allowing more than two loaded camels, or one camel and two foot passengers to pass each other, though it h clear that some of the streets of Nineveh must have been wide enough for chariots to pass each other (Nah. ii, 4; see Olearius, Trav, p. 294, 809 ; Burckhardt, Trav. m Arabia, 1, 188; Buckingham, Arab Tribe*, p. 880; Mrs. Poole, Englishwoman tn Egjfpt, i, 141). The word for "streets" used by Nahum—CniarTI, from ann, broad, ^rXaraai) — is used also of streets or broad places in Jerusalem (Prov. i, 20 ; Jer. v, 1 ; xxii, 4 ; Cant, iii, 2) ; and it may be remarked that the thoroughfares (frXariiai) into which the sick were brought to receive the shadow of Peter (Acts v, 15) were more likely to be the ordinary streets than the special plazze of the city. It seems likely that the immense concourse which resorted to Jerusalem at the feasts would induce wider streets than in other cities (see 1 Kings xx, 84). Herod built in Antioch a wide street paved with stone, and having covered wa3r8 on each side. Agrippa II paved Jerusalem with white stone (Josephus, Ant, xvi, 5, 2 and 8 ; xx, 9, 7). The streets of most cities of Palestine would not need paving, in consequence of the rocky nature of the foundations on which they lay. The Straight Street of Damascus is still clearly defined and recognisable (Irby and Mangles, v, 86 ; Robinson, new ed. of Bes. iii, 454, 455). In building Cftsarea, Josephus says that Herod was careftil to carry out the drainage efiectually (Josephus, Ant, xv, 19, 6). The internal commerce of Jewish cities was probably car- ried on as now by means of bazaars (q. v.) ; for we read of the bakers* street (Jer. xxxvii, 21), and Josephus speaks of the wool market, the hardware market, a place of blacksmiths* shops, and the clothes market, at Jerusalem {War, v, 8, 1). See Street.