Various theories have therefore been proposed to ac- count for the speedy death of Christ upon the cross. That it did not occur simply and directly ftt)m the cru- cifixion is evident from the above statements, and from the surprise of Pilate that it had taken place so soon, when the thieves crucified at the same time had not expired. The usual theory attributes his sudden death to a voluntary surrender of his own life, which is sup- posed to be fevered by the expression "yielded or *gave' up the ghost," d0^ice \7raQiBbiKt\ rb wtvfia, Matt, xxvii, 50 ; John xix, 80), and also by his declarations concerning his " laying down his life" (ri^fu Hfv if^v- XqiVy John X, 11, 15, 17). But, aside firom the inappo- siteness of these passages (the same terms being often used of ordinary decease and of voluntary submission to a violent death), thb view is derogatory to the char- acter of Christ (who is thus, in effect, made a suicide), and inconsistent with the expressions concerning the guilt of his murderers (who are thus made only acces- sories or assistants). The most probable explanation of the sudden death of Christ is that proposed and ex- tensively argued by Dr. Stroud {TreatUe on the Phyg- ieal Cause of the Death ofChrUt, Lond. 1847), who at- tributes it to a proper rupture of the heart, a pathologi- cal accident, which he thus describes (p. 88): "The immediate cause is a sudden and violent contraction of one of the ventricles, usually the left, on the column of blood thrown into it by a similar contraction of the corresponding auricle. Prevented from returning
CRUCIFIXION
592
CRUCIGER
backward by the iDtervening valve, and not finding a sufficient outlet forward in the connected artery, the blood reacts against the ventricle itself, which is con- sequently torn open at the point of greatest distention, or least resistance, by the influence of its own reflected force. A quantity of blood is hereby discliarged into the pericardium, and, having no means to escape firom that capsule, stops the circulation by compressing the heart firom without, and induces almost instantaneous death. In young and vigorous subjects, the blood thus collected in the pericardium soon divides into its con- stituent parts, namely, a pale, watery liquid called se- rum, and a soft clotted substance of a deep red color, called crassamentum ; but, except under similar cir- cumstances of extravasation, this distinct separation of the blood is seldom witnessed in the dead body.*' This explanation meets all the circumstances of Christ's passion. The Violence of his emotions was sufficient to burst open the heart, as Dr. Stroud shows by a multitude of examples of immediate death fh)m sudden mental affections ; and this, as a secondary cause, is confirmed by the occurrence of the sanguine- ous perspiration in the garden flrom similar emotions. See Bloody Sweat. It explains the suddenness of Christ's death, so evident in all the evangelical narra- tives, as well as its early occurrence, so surprising to Pilate. The loud slirieks that immediately preceded dissolution were at once the expression of the mental paroxysm (Matt xxvii, 60 ; Mark xv, 87), and the ef- fort of nature to relieve the system from the sense of suffocation consequent upon the congestion of blood at the heart. This will also account for the presence of "water" (serum), as well as " blood" (crassamentum), in a commingled yet distinct state, within the pericar- dium, and discharged at the orifice made by the sol- dier's spear (John xix, 84), since no blood would flow from a wound in a corpse's veins. See Blood and Water.
y. LUercUure. — ^An explanation of the other circum- stances attending the crucifixion belongs rather to a commentary than a dictionary. The assertion of Pau- lus and others, that the feet were not nailed (Curtius, De clavis Domini, Antw. 1670), is amply refuted by Winer (De pedum affiaaone. Lips. 1845) and others. For the detailed incidents in our Saviour's case, see Jesus ; and compare Hase, Leben Jesu, § 115. On the types and prophecies of it, besides those adduced, see Cypr. Testim. il, 20. On the resurrection of the saints, see Lightfoot, ad. Mait, xxvil, 52 (there is a monograph by Gebaverius — Dissert, de JUsur, sanctorum cum Chris- to, in his Comment. MisceU. No. 6). See Besurreg- TiON. On other concomitant prodigies, see Sch5tt- gen. Hot, Hebr. et Talmud, vi, 8, 8. See Darkness ; Earthquake. The chief ancient authorities may be found in Lipsius, De Cruce (Antwerp, 1589, 1594, and since) ; see also in Fabric. BibUogr. Antiquar, (Hamb. 1760), p. 755 sq. ; and especially Friediieb, Archdolc ffie der Leidensgeschickte (Bonn, 1843). On the points in which our Lord's crucifixion differed f^om the ordi- nary Jewish customs, see Othonis Lex, Rabbinicum, s. V. Supplicia; Bynasus, De Morte J, Christi; Yossius, Harm, Passionis; Carpzov, Apparat, Crit. p. 591, sq. etc. ; Salmasius, De Cruce (L. B. 1646) ; Bartholinus, De latere CkrisH ap&rto (L. B. 1646) ; also De Cruce Christi (Amst. 1670, L. B. 1693) ; Zobel, in the Magaz, fur bibl. Interpret, ii, 821 sq. See Cross.
There are monographs in Latin on the following points connected with the subject : on the cross itself by Baudissus (Viteb. 1673), Cellarius (Ziz. 1677), Cyp- rian (Helmst 1699), Freiesleben (Jen. 1662), Germar (Thorun. 1787), Gezelius (Upsal. 1692), Gleich (Lips. 1704), Liperuis (Sedin. 1675), Ortlob (Viteb. 1656), Ni- husius (Colon. 1644), Paschius (Viteb. 1686), Richter (Zittau, 1776), Verporten (Frcft. ad V. 1769), Gretser (Ingolst. 1698-1605), id. (ib. 1610), Lipsius (Antwerp, 1595, 1606, Amst. 1670), Bosius (Antw. 1617), Bomitius (Vit. 1644), Salmasius (L. B. 1646), Lange (Vit