GEOGRAPHY
791
GEOGRAPHY
The World as known to the Romans.
the quadrangular shape of a garment stretched out, according to Eratosthenes's comparison ; but the term "corners" may be applied in a metaphorical sense for the extreme ends of the world (Job xxxvii, 3 ; xxxviii, 1:5; Isa. xi, 12; xxiv, IG; Ezek. vii, 2). Finally, it is suggested by Biihr (SyniboUk, i, 170) that these two views may have been held together, tlie former as the actual and the latter as the symbolical representation of the earth's form. See Earth.
In the account of creation mention is made of a spot called Eden, out of which a river, after watering Par- adise, ran, and "from thence it was parted, and be- came into four heads" (fountains), which sent forth as many rivers — Pison, Gihon, Hiddckel, Phrat or Eu- phrates. See Eden. Josephus, on this point, says (_Ant. 1, 2), "The garden was watered by one river
which ran round about the whole earth and was parted into four parts." The idea here presented is tliat of a vast circular plain (the earth), with water, a river, or the sea (wKtavuc in Homer, 11. xxi, 19G) encircling it, from which encircling body of water ran the said four rivers. Such, whether derived from the Hebrew Scrip- tures or not, was tlie earliest conception entertained of the earth. That some such idea was entertained among the Hebrews, even at a later period, appears from tlie words found in Psa. xxiv, 2: "He hath founded it (tlie earth) upon the seas, and established it upon the floods" (see also Prov. viii, 27) ; thougli Job xxvi, 7, " He stretcheth out the north over the empty place, and hangeth the earth upon nothing" (compare Job xxxviii, -l, 6), would seem to intimate that the writer of that book entertained superior notions on the
GEOGRAPHY
792
GEOGRAPHY
point. That, however, the general idea was that the earth formed an immense disk ("the circle of the eartli"), above which were the substantial and firnih'- ' fixed lieavens, the abode of God, wliile the earth be- neath was his footstool, appears from the general phraseology' employed in the sacred books, and ma}' I)e found specially exhibited or implied in the follow- ing passages: Isa. xl, 21 sq. ; Job xxxvii, 18; Psa. I'ii, '25. See Astronomy.
As to the size of the earth, the Hebrews had but a very indefinite notion ; in many passages the " earth," or "'whole earth," is used as co-extensive with the Labylonian (Isa. xiii, 5 ; xiv, 7 sq. ; xxiv, 17) or As- syrian empires (Isa. x, 14; xiv, '26 ; xxxvii, 18), just as at a later pariod the Koman empire was styled 07-bis terrartim ; the "ends of the earth" ("lUp) in the lan- guai:e of prophecy was applied to the nations on the border of these kingdoms, especialh' the Medes (Isa. v, 26; xiii, 5) in the east, and the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean in the west (Isa. xli, 5, 9) ; but occa- sionally the boundary was contracted in this latter di- rection to the eastern shores of the INIediterrancan (Isa. xxiv, 16; Zech. ix, 10; Psa. Ixxii, 8). Without un- duly pressing the langua'j;e of prophecj', it may be said that the views of the Hebrews as to the size of the earth extended but little beyond the nations with which they came in contact; its solidity is frequently noticed, its dimensions but seldom (.Job xxxviii, 18 ; Isa. xiii, 5). The world in this sense was sometimes described by the poetical term tebel (3^?!), correspond- ing to the Greek oIkovh'cvi] (Isa. xiv, 21).
The earth was divided into four quarters or regions corresponding to the four points of the compass ; these were described in various ways, sometimes according to their positions relatively to a person facing the east, before (Q'np?), behind ("linx), the right hand (l"^";^), and the left hand (bN"i), representing respectively E., W., S., and N. (.Job sxiii, 8, 9); sometimes rela-
tivelj' to the sun's course, the rising (n^T'2), the setting (X'2-2, Psa. 1,1), the brilliant quarter (C^~'l, Ezek. xl, 21), and tlie dark quarter O'S^, Exod. xxvi, 20 ; comp. the Greek ^o^of , Horn. II. xii, 210) ; sometimes as the seat of the four winds (Ezek. xxxvii, 9) ; and some- times according to the physical characteristics, the sea (C^) for the W. (Gen. xxviii, 11), the parched {Zpj for the S. (Exod. xxvii, 9), and the mountains (~"^"in) for the N. (Isa. xiii, 1). The north appears to have been regarded as the highest part of the earth's surface, in consequence, perliaps, of the mountain ranges which existed there, and thus the heaviest part of the earth (Job xxvi, 7). The north was also the quarter in which the Hebrew El-Doirido la}', the land of gold mines (Job xxxvii, 22, margin ; comp. Herod, iii, 116). These terms are very indistinctly used when applied to special localities ; for we find tlie north assigned as the quarter of Assyria (Jer. iii, 18), Babylonia (Jer. vi, 22), and the Euphrates (Jer. xlvi, 10), and more fre- quently Media (.Jer. 1,3 ; comp. li, 11), while the south is especiall}' represented by Egypt (Isa. xxx, 6 ; Dan. xi, 5). The Hebrews were not more exact in the use of terms descrijjtive of the physical features of the earth's surface : for instance, the same term (C"^) is ap- plied to the sea (Mediterranean), to the lakes of Pales- tine, and to great rivers, such as the Nile (Isa. xviii, 2), and perhaps the Euphrates (Isa. xxvii, 1) ; moun- tain ("ill) signifies not only high ranges, such as Sinai or Ararat, but an elevated region (.Josh, xi, 16) ; river ("'ill) is occasionally applied to- the sea (.Jonah ii, 3; Psa. xxiv, 2) and to canals fed by rivers (Isa. xliv, 27). Their vocabulary, however, was ample for de- scribing the special features of the lands with which they were acquainted, the terms for the different sorts of valle3's, mountains, rivers, and springs being very numerous and expressive. "We cannot fail to be