The hatred of Christianity, the religion of the detest- ed foreigners, induced the rulers of Japan to break off all intercourse with Christian nations. Even the allied Dutjh had soon to suffer from this isolation. They had to give up in 1G41 the island of Firando (north of Na- gasaki), which in 1609 had been assigned to them as a trading station, and to remove to the island of Desima, where their ofRcers were subjected to a very rigorous superintendence. They were only allowed to export annually goods to the value of 750,000 florins (the Chi- nese 1,000,000) in two ships (the Chinese in ten) ; more- over, they had to send for a long time annually, and since 1790 every fourth year, tribute to Y'eddo. All the efforts made by the governments of Christian nations (the English fVom 1613 to 1623, and in 1803, the Rus- sians in 1792 and 1804, and the North Americans in 1837) to re-establish commercial relations were unsuc- cessful. When China was partly opened to the Chris- tian nations in virtue of the treaty of Nanking (1842), king William II of the Netherlands (by a letter dated Feb. 15, 1844) made another attempt to prevail upon the Japanese government to open several ports and to allow commercial intercourse, but again his request was declined, as was also that of the American commodore Biddle, who in 1846 appeared in the bay of Y'eddo, and proposed the conclusion of a commercial treaty. ]More successful, however, was the American commodore Per- ry, Avho, towards the close of 1852, was sent with a flo- tilla to Yeddo. After long-protracted and most difficidt negotiations, he concluded on 3Iarch 31, 1853, at Kana- gava, a treaty of peace and friendship, by whicli the American vessels received access to the jiorts of Simoda and Hakodade, to the former immediately, to the latter from March 31, 1855, in order to take in fuel, water, pro\'isions, and other necessaries. The long isolation of Japan from the Christian world having thus come to an end, treaties with other Christian nations soon fol- lowed. Thus England obtained the conchision of a treaty similar to the American on Oct. 14, 1854; Russia on Feb. 7, 1855 ; the Netherlands on Nov. 9, 1855. The
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last-named treaty abrogated the disgraceful stipulations | concerning Christianity to which the Dutch had former- ly been compelled to submit, and an additional stipula- tion of Jan. 30, 1856, allowed them to celebrate divine worship in the opened ports. In 1857 and 1858 new treaties made further concessions to the four treaty powers, an<l tlie same rights were, by a treaty of Oct. 9, 1858, extended to France. From Jan. 1, 1859, the ports of Nagasaki, Hakodade, and Kanagava; from Jan. 1, 1860, the port of Negate, and another port on the west- ern coast of Nipon; and on Jan. 1, 1863, Hiogo, the port of Osaca, were opened. Foreigners were allowed to re- side in these places, to purchase landed property, to build houses and cnurches, and to celebrate their divine worship; from Jan. 1, 1862, they were also permitted to reside in Yeddo. Gradually other Christian nations, as Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and Austria, likewise sent expeditions to Japan, which requested and obtained the conclusion of similar treaties.
The first step towards opening intercourse with for- eign nations was soon followed by others. In 1860 a Japanese embassj^ was sent to the United States; an- other visited in 1862 the London Exhibition, as well as courts of Europe. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 even the brother of the Tycoon appeared with a numerous retinue. A number of young Japanese, including many sons of princes, were sent to the schools of foreign coun- tries, in particular those of the United States ; several distinguished foreigners were called to high offices in Japan, and a Japanese cousid general was appoii;ted for San Francisco in 1869.
The great change which, during the period from 1854 to 1870, took place in the relation of Japan to the world abroad, was not completed without producing many vi- olent commotions, and effecting important transforma- tions at home. The policy pursued by the Tycoon at Yeddo was bitterly opposed and resisted by many of the most influential Daimios, and a large portion of the Japanese people at large. On this occasion it was foimd out that the European governments which had concluded treaties with the Tycoon had been greatly mistaken concerning the true nature of the office of Tycoon. They had regarded him as being the absolute ruler of Japan ; whereas, in fact, the Mikado, although actually confined to the exercise of his religious func- tions, was still universally looked upon as the head of the state, and the highest arbiter in aU quarrels between the Tycoon and the Daimios. In union with the Dai- mios, the Mikado now asserted his sovereignty with considerable success. When some of the Daimios com- mitted outrages against the foreigners, the Tycoon con- fessed his inability to bring them to punishment, and the European powers had themselves to enforce their claims against the princes of Satsuma and Negato. Ultimate- ly a fierce civil war broke out between the Tycoon and a number of the northern Daimios on the one hand, and the Mikado and the majority of the Daimios on the other, which resulted in the abolition of the office of the Tycoon (1868), and the restoration of the Jlikado to the full power of actual ruler. The successful Mikado, however, <lid not, as many expected, change the foreign policy, but showed himself eager to cultivate the most friendly relations with foreigners, and to elevate the country to a level with the most civilized nations of Europe and America. In May, 1869, a large congress of Daimios -was held at Yeddo, and from that time to the middle of the year 1871 many important reforms in the administration have partly been carried through, partly begun.