III. The council of 1109, under Innocent II, con- demned the anti-pope Anacletus II, with his adherents, and deposed all who had received oilice under him. On the same day with the installation of Innocent II, in 1130, Peter of Leon, a cardinal, and grandson of a rich Jewish banker, had been proclaimed pope, as Anacletus II, by a majority of the carcUnals. Innocent took ref- uge in France, where he was supported by the king. His cause was Avarmly esjioused by Bernard of Clair- vaux, through whose influence chiefly Innocent recov- ered his position in Italy, and marched into Rome tri- umphantly with Lothaire II in 1136. Anacletus died in 1138, and a successor was chosen by his party only -with the purpose of making peace. Roger of Sicily had sup- ported Anacletus, anil was on this account condemned in the council of 1139, though the origin of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies belongs to the same year, Roger hav- ing taken Innocent prisoner, and havnng compelled the pope to bestow upon him the investiture of this king- dom. At this council Arnold of Brescia was also con- demned. This was a young clergyman of the city of ISrescia, a disciple of Abelard, who, inspired by the free philosophical spirit of his master, devoted himself to the promoti.in of practical reform in Church and State. A marked spirit of political independence was manifostiiir; itself about this time in Lombardy, as an inheritance from the old Roman municipaUties established thcie. Tlie popes, from the days of Leo IX, had themselves in- spired movements of ecclesiastical reform. Pascal II had admitted that the secular power of the bishops in- terfered with their spiritual duties. Bernard, though a zealous opponent of Arnold, yet writes as follows in his Contemplations on the Papacii : " Who can mention the place where one of the apostles ever held a trial, decided disputes about boundaries, or portioned out lands ?" '■ I read that the apostles stood before judgment seats, not sat on them." Arnold preached with great zeal against the political power and wealth of the clergy. The Church ought rather to rejoice, he said, in an apostolic poverty. He was driven successively from Italy, France, and Switzerland, but in 1 139 was recalled to Rome by the populace, who sought to revive the sovereignty of the state, established a senate, limited the pope to the exercise of spiritual power and the possession of volun- tary offerings, and invited the Geniian emperor to make Rome his capital. Arnold and his "politicians" at Rome thus gave pope Iimocent and his immediate suc- cessors— Lucius II, Eugenius III, and Adrian IV — more trouble than any political movements elsewhere. This condemnation at the council did not etfcctually cUmin- ish his power. Wlicn, however, Adrian, in 1151, ]iut the city of Rome under ban, and iirohibited all public worshij), Arnold was abandoned by the senate, sacri- ficed by Frederick I, and hung at Rome in 1155, his body being burned and thrown into the Tiber. Among the canons of the council, the twenty-tliird condemns the heresy of the JIanich:eans, as the followers of. Peter de Bruis were called. This heresy was attributed to the early Waldensians in France and elsewliefe. arising partly from their ascetic; mode of life. About 10(10 prel- ates were present at this council; thirty canons of dis- cipline were published, and among tliera reaffirmations
of former canons against simony, marriage, and concu- binage in the clergy.
IV. The council of 1179, under Alexander III, num- bering 280, mostly Latin bishops, was called to correct certain abuses which had arisen during the long schism just brought to a close- by the peace of Venice, 1177. Until near the end of the Pith century the popes were hard pressed by the Hohenstauften emperors. It is the contest of Ghibelline and Guelph. Frederick I had taken umbrage at the use of the term '• beneficium" in a letter addressed to him by Adrian IV about the rudeness of German knights to pilgrims visiting Rome, as if the pope meant to imply that the imperial author- ity hail been conferred by him. The emperor marched into Italy, and other letters were interchanged between him and the pope, when, upon the death of Adrian in 1159, the two parties — the hierarchic and the moderate among the cardinals — chose two opposing popes, viz. Alexander III and Victor IV, The emperors council, called at Pavia in IIGO, recognised the latter. Pascal III and Calixtus III followed at the imperial dictation, with but little influence. Alexander, from his refuge in France,- enjoyed great popularity. He had on his side the Lombard league. The cause of Frederick was defended by the lawyers of Bologna, who ascribed to him unlimited power, to the prejudice of the people. Defeated at Legnano in 117(5, the emperor subscribed, at the dictation of Alexander, the peace of Venice, the pro- visions of which were based on the Concordat of Worms. The first and most important of the twenty-seven can- ons established by this council, which were mostly dis- ciplinary, provides that henceforth " the election of the popes shall be confined to the college of cardinals, and tivo thirds of the votes shall be required to make a law- ful (lection, instead of a majority only, as heretofore." It was by this council also that the " errors and impie- ties" of the Waklenses and Albigenses were declared heretical. At the unimportant council of 1167, pope Al- exander excommunicated Frederick I.