social as of individual existence. " The first compila- tion of a liturgy is recorded of Amram Gaon (A.D. 870- 880) ; the first that has survived is that of Saadja Gaon (d. A.D. 942). These early collections of prayers gen- erally contained also compositions from the hand of the compiler, and minor additions, such as ethical tracts, almanacs, etc., and were called Siddurini (Orders, Ritu- als), embracing the whole calendar year, week-days and new moons, fasts and festivals. Later, the term was restricted to the week-day ritual, that for the festivals being called Machzor (Cycle). Besides these, we find the iielichoth, or Penitential Prayers ; Kinoth, or Elegies ; Hoshanuhf, or Hosannahs (for the seventh day of the Feast of Tabernacles) ; and Bakashoth, or Special Sup- plications, chiefly for private devotion. The Karaites (q. v.), being harshly treated in these liturgies, especial- ly by Saadja, have distinct compilations. The first of these was made by David ben-Hassan about A.D. 9G0 (compare Rule, Karaites, p. 88, 104 sq., 118, 135 sq., 173 note). The public prayers were for a long time only said by the public reader (Chasan, Sheliach Zibbur), the people joining in silent responses and amens. These readers by degrees — chiefly from the 10th century — in- troduced occasional prayers (I'iutim) of their own, over and above those used of yore. The materials -were taken from the Halachah as well as the Haggadah (q. V.) ; religious doctrine, history, saga, angelology, and mysticism, interspersed with Biblical verses, are thus found put together like a mosaic of the most original and fantastic, often grand and brilliant, and often ob- scure and feeble kind; and the pure Hebrew in manj^ cases made room for a corrupt Chaldee. We can only point out here the two chief groups of religious poetry — viz. the Arabic on the one hand, and the French- German school on the other. The most eminent repre- sentative of the Pajtanic age (ending c. 1100) is Eleazar Biribi Kalir. Among the most celebrated poets in his manner are Meshulam b.-Kalonymos of Lucca, Solomon b.-Jehuda of Babylon, R. Gerson, Elia b.-Menahem of Mans, Benjamin b.-Serach, Jacob Zom Elem, Eliezer b.-Samuel, Kalonymos b.-Moses, Solomon Isaaki. Of exclusively Spanish poets of this period, the most bril- liant are Jehuda Halevi, Solomon b.-Gabirol, Josef ibn- Abitur, Isaac ibn-Giat, Abraham Abn-Esra, Moses ben- Nachman, etc. When, however, in the beginning of the 13th centurj', secret doctrine and philosophy, casu- istry and dialectics, became the paramount study, the cultivation of the Pint became neglected, and but few, and for the most part insignificant, are the writers of liturgical pieces from this time downwards" (Chambers). Comp. Zunz, Synagor/ale Poesie des Mittelalters, p. 69 sq. These liturgies, adopted by the Jews in different coun- tries, were naturally subject to great variation, not only in their order, but also in their contents. Even in our day there exists the greatest variety imaginable in the synagogues of even one and the same country, due, in a measure, also to the influence of the reformatory move- ments. See Judaism. Particidarly worthy of note are the rituals of Germany (Poland), of France, Spain, and Portugal (Sefardim), Italy (Rome), the Levant (Ro- magna), and even of some special towns, like Avignon, Carpentras, Montpellier. The rituals of Barbary (Al- giers, Tripoli, Oran, IMorocco, etc.) are of Spanish origin. The Judieo-Chinese liturgy, it may be observed by the way, consists only of pieces from the Bible. Yet, in the main body of their principal prayers, all these lit- urgies agree. As illustrative of these unessential di- versities, we give the jirayer of the Shemonah Esreh, which has been added to the number since the destruc- tion of the second Temple, but which now stands as the twelfth, and shows its manifest reference to the follow- ers of the Nazarene : " Let there be no hope to those who apostatize from tiie true religion ; and let heretics, how many soever they be, all perish as in a moment ; and let the kingdom of pride be speedily rooted out and broken in our days. Blessetl art thou, O Lord our God, who destroyest the wicked, and bringest down the
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proud" (Priiloaux). " Let slanderers have no hope, and all ])r('suniiitiious apostates perish as in a moment; and may thine enemies, and those who hate thee, be sudden- ly cut oil', and all those who act wickedly be suddenly broken, consumed, and rooted out; and humble thou tlu in speedily in our days. Blessed art thou, O Lord, who destroyest the enemies and humblest the proud" (Spanish and Portuguese Jews' Prayer-book). That in the German and Polish Jews' Prayer-book is more brief, and less pointed in its application to apostates, i. e. Jews converted to Christianity. There are translations and commentaries on them in most of the modern languages. In the orthodox congregations, these forms of prayer, whether for the worship of the synagogue or for domes- tic and private use, are all appointed to be said in He- brew, One of the best moves in this direction is the effort within the last century to remedy this evil by parallel translations. In this country the service-books in the synagogues are usually of this kind : either the Hebrew on one page and the English on the other, or both in parallel columns on the same page,