" It was, perhaps, the zeal of Gregory for multiplying nominal converts to Christianity that led him to intro- duce alterations in the forms of worship, which were so exaggerated by succeeding jrontiffs as to change the solemn service of God into a ridiculous show. Observ- ing the influence which the harmonies of music and the beauties of painting and sculpture exerted upon the minds of the Lombards and other half-civilized tribes, he resolved to employ the arts as handmaids to religion" {Lives of the Popes, p. 78-81).
For more than one hundred years following, although the papacy was constantly making advances towartls temjwral sovereignty, no one of the popes possessed the character of (Jregory. In 715 firegory II came to the papal chair. It was he that sent Corbinian as mission- arj- to France and Boniface to Germany. (Gregory III, about 741, sent the first ambassador of Home to France. From the middle of the 8th century the popedom laid claim to a temjioral sovereignty, and from A.U. 800. when pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as emperor of the West, that monarch assumed the protectorate of Chris- tendom, and stood ready to the extent of his power to promote the interests of the Koman see, which he chief- ly did bj' means of conquest. From that time, more than before, missions were made an agency for the prop- agandism not merely of a ceremonial Christianity, but of the power of the popes. Monasticism, already wide- ly extended, became an auxiliary of great power, that could be wielded for any special object contemplated by the Koman see. The po])es wieldeil the prerogative of establishing and controlling the various orders of monks, and, by granting them exemption from the local super- vision of bishops, were able always to hold them in the most direct subservience to their own ambitions. From the middle of the Dth century onward there was a vast increase of monasteries in various parts of Europe. The Benedictine order was in the ascendency, hut, notwith- standing repeated reforms of its rule and practice, many of the monks were dissolute, and, as the clergy of vari- ous countries were chiefly taken from the monasteries, anarchy, simony, and concubinage largely prevailed. This was the sceculum obscurum, the darkest of the dark ages; and, in the general stagnation which ])revailed, there was but little activity in any form of missionary effort. Europe was considered Christian, and there were no elements at work to imjirove the type of Christian- ity it had received, while, on the contrary, many germs of evil that had been sowed as tares were springing up to choke whatever of wheat was left to grow.
0. The Crusades. — About this period rumors of vio- lence and insult to Christian pilgrims in the East began to excite attention, and the certainty that Chrif^tians were greatly oppressed by the Moslems at Jerusalem and throughout Palestine became the pretext for the crusades. The idea of rescuing by force the Holy Sep- ulchre from the pollution of the infidels was first devel- oped as a duty of the Church under pope Sylvester II, A.I). l)I)9-10(i;). It took form and action in eight suc- cessive crusades or wars of the cross, extending through two centuries and a half. These so-called holy wars scarcely dittered iu principle from the wars of Clovis, Charlemagne, and others, by which the Church liad been exteiuled among the nations and trilics of A'orth- ern Europe ; and also of Cortez and I'izarro, made after the discover}' of the New World, to Christianize (?) the nations of Mexico and Central and South America. The peculiarity of the crusades consist! d in the remoteness of the land they aimed to coiupier, the resistance offered by the^Ioslem races, and the defeats which overwhelm- etl in one form or another the armies of eight succcs-
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sive crusades, until, by the loss of millions of men and treasure, all Europe was exhausted.
The only proper view to take of these wars is to re- gard them' as grand but mistaken missionary expedi- tions. As such they were sanctioned by the popes, preached by the monks, sustained by the people, and enterprised'by the warriors, who went forth prepared to sacrifice treasure and life, but confident of winning heav- en as a result. Mark the history and language of pope Innocent III, A.D. 1198-1216 : '-The event of the cru- sades might have crushed a less lofty and religious mind than that of Innocent to despair. Armies after armies had left their bones to crumble on the plains of Asia Minor or of Galilee ; great sovereigns had perished or returned discomfited from the Holy Land. The great German crusade had ended in disgracefid failure. All was dissension, jealousy, hostility. The khig of Antioch was at war with the Christian king of Armenia. The two great orders, tlie only powerful defenders of the land, the Hospitallers and the Templars, were in impla- cable feud. The Christians of Palestine were in mor- als, in character, in habits, the most licentious, most treacherous, most ferocious of mankind. But the dark- er the aspect of aftairs the more firmly seemed Innocent to be persuaded that the crusade was the cause of God. In every new disaster, in everj^ discomfiture and loss, the popes had still found unfailing refuge in ascribing them to the sins of the Christians, and their sins were dark enough to justify the strongest language of Inno- cent. It needed but more perfect faith, more holiness, and one believer would put to flight twelve millions; the miracles of God against Pharaoh and against the Philistines would be renewed in their behalf. For the first two or three years of Innocent's pontificate, address after address, rising one above another in impassioned eloquence, enforced the duty of contributing to the holy war. This was to be the principal, if not the exclusive theme of the preaching of the clergy. In letters to the bishop of Syracuse, to all the bishops of Apulia, Cala- bria, and Tuscany, he urges them to visit every city, town, and castle ; he exhorts not only the nobles, but the citizens, to take up arms for Jesus Christ. Those who cannot assist in person are to assist in other ways, by furnishing ships, provisions, and money. Somewhat later came a more energetic epistle to all archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, and princes and barons of France, England, Hungary, and Sicily. The vicar of Christ him- self would claim no exemption from the universal call; he would, as became him, set the example, and in per- son and in estate devote himself to the sacred cause. He had therefore himself invested with the cross two cardinals of the Church, who were to precede the army of the Lord, and to be maintained, not by any mendi- cant support, but at the expense of the holy see. After the pope's example, before the next March, everj- arch- bishop, bishop, and prelate was to furnish a certain num- ber of soldiers, according to his means, or a certain rate in money for the support of the crusading army. Who- ever refused was to be treated as a violator of God's commandments, threatened with condign punishment, even with suspension. To all who embarked in the war Innocent promised, on their sincere repentance, the remission of all their sins, and eternal life in the great day of retribution. Those who were unable to proceed in person might obtain the same remission in proportion to the bounty of their offerings and the devotion of their hearts. The estates of all wlw took up the cross were placed under the protection of St, Peter" (Milman, Lat, Christianity, v, 75 sq.). Had such language been used, such influence exerted, and such sacrifices made in harmony with the Saviour's plan of evangelizing the world, who can tell what happy and far-reaching re- sults might not have been attained as the issue ? But bad efforts in a good cause, no less than well-meant ef- forts in a bad cause, can only be expected to result dis- astrousl}'. Hence true Christianity, instead of being promoted, was perverted and antagonized, till the hope VI.— Z