tory of general education). Talmudic Judaism provided an organized system of schools for the rabbins. From these were developed real schools of learning, and facili- ties of a remarkable pedagogical order were afforded by them for the different so-called learned professions [s; e the articles Slua, Pumbudita, etc.]. During the Mid- dle Ages such Jewish schools flourished prominently in Sjiain and France, until the general persecutions inaugu- rated against them made their maintenance any longer an impossibility. In modern times the culture of the Jews partakes more and more of the character of that which prevails among the civilized nations among whom they live (comp. Worman, Hebrews, their Education in An- cient and Modern Times, in Kidder and Schem's Cy- clop, of Education ; Palmer, Die Pddayoyik des A. T., in Schmidt's Enajkl. d.yesammt. Erziehunys- u. Unterrickts- icesens [Gotha, 1866] ; id. Gesch. der Pddayoyik, vol. i; Weber and Holtzraann, Gesch. d. Volkes Israel [Leips. 1867], ii, 156 sq.). See also Education (Hebrew).
The influence of Western nations upon the progress of civilization is of a more recent date, that of the Greeks being first. They held, on the one hand, the conviction that the individual is of no importance in himself, but only as a member of the state ; but, on the other hand, they manifested an active spirit that re- fused to be controlled by nature, seeking rather to sub- due it and reduce it to harmony. These characteristics gave shape to education among them, first in the course of practical experiment during many ages, and after- wards as a subject of legislation and philosophy. The political tendency referred to predominated in the sys- tems of the Doric tribes, while thebroader recognition of manhood was the leading principle among the lonians. The result was that popidar education was more generally diffused among the former; while among the latter (at Athens) it was rather the privilege of the superior class. Slaves, however, Avere everj'where excluded from the privileges of learning. The Doric system sought to ciUtivate a manly, independent spirit, that should yet devote itself to tlie interests of the state. The means employed were gymnastics and music, and, at a later period, reading and writing. Youthful females like- wise made use of these, for the cultivation of firmness and love of countr}'. This spirit, ennobled and strength- ened bj' philosophj', appears likewise in the school of Pythagoras, B.C. 569-470. He founded institutions for the purpose of promoting the health and purity of both bod}' and soul. [For his philosophy, see the art. Pythagoras.] Tlie Ionian system, which made no provision whatever for the education of females, sought to attain KaXoKaya^ia, the beautiful and the good. The home and public training were complemenfary of each other; but the influence of the former was not, as a general thing, beneficial, owing to the authority ex- ercised by the nurses and house-slaves (Trnicnywyoi). The public gymnasia taught reading, penmanship, grammar, arithmetic, music, and gymnastics, to which the use of weapons was afterwards added. The scepti- cism of the Stoics, and the exalted ideals of social cult- ure entertained by Plato and Aristotle, do not seem to have exercised any important influence over the education of the people generally — which is true of all the various systems of philosophy. The influence of Plato's zealous opposition to the godlessness and licen- tiousness of the popular religion of the Greeks, how- ever, was felt in the gradual undermining of the latter. Down to the time of Plato the real instructor of the Greeks was Homer; from that period his works were subjected to the process of allegorical interpretation (comp. Hochheimer, System d.yi-iech. Erziehuny [CJcitt. 1785-1788] ; Gross, Die Erziehunyswissemch. nach d. Grundsatzcn d. Gr. u. Romer [Ansbach, 1808] ; Jacobs, Erz. d. Hellenen zur Sittlichkeit ; Jiiger, Die Gymnastik d. Hellenen, etc. [Esslingen, I860]; Krause, Gesch. d. Erz. u. d. Vnierrichts bei d. Griechen, Etruskern v. Jid- mern [Halle, 1851] ; Kirkpatrick, The University [Lond. 1857, 12mo], p. 93-241; Opler, Lectures on Education
PEDAGOGICS
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PEDAGOGICS
[ibid. 1874, 12mo], p. 4-30). Among the ancient Ro- mans the object of religious and social training, if con- sideroil apart from the elements introduced by the Sa- bine and Etruscan intiuencc, was to fit the people for citizenship. Both domestic and public instruction were employed for this end. Seminaries were provided, though not in considerable number before the period •when Grecian culture began to assert its claims; while in the family the iniluential jxpclafjoe/us came graduallj' to occupy the place of the parent. Reading, writing, and the memorizing of authors belonged to the course of study. Khetorical practice was confined to the philosophical schools, and does not date farther back than the empire. Organized elementarj' schools be- came very numerous from that period: new facilities for instruction were added to those already in use ; and the higher learning was extended, after the Alexandrian model, to embrace the circle of the aries Uherales — gram- mar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astrono- my, and music. In time a demand for practical schools of j urisprudence made itself felt ; and subsequently (from A.D. 425) the need of schools of medicine, philosoph}', grammar, and rhetoric was recognised, giving rise to universities Avith faculties. Educational theorists were Fortius Cato, M. T. Varro, Cicero, Seneca, Tacitus, Quin- tilian — the professor eloquentue — Plutarch, and also M. Aurelius (comp. Bernhardy, Grundriss d. Bom. Literatnr [Halle, 1850]; Lange, ROm. Alterth. [Berlin, 18C3J ; Niemeyer, Orir/inalstellen der Griech. u. Rom. Classiker iib. d. Theorie d. Erziehung u. des Unteri-ichts [Halle and Berlin, 1813]).