In A.D. 136 the emperor Hadrian founded a new city, nnder the name of ^Elia Capitolina, to which he gave the privileges of a colony. None but Christians and pagans were allowed to enter (Dion Cass. Ixix, 12; comp. Gibbon).
The New Test, history falls within the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. Only Augustus (Luke ii, 1), Tiberius (iii, 1), and Claudius (Acts xi, 28; xviii, 2) are mentioned; but Nero is alluded to in the Acts from ch. xxv to the end, and in Phil, iv, 22. The Roman emperor in the New Test, is usually called Caesar (Acts xxv, 10, 11, 12, 21), though sometimes Au- gustus (Sf/^aoToC) ver. 21, 25), and once Lord (o Kvpiog, ver. 26). We thus find many characteristics of the Ro- man rule constantly before us in the New Test.: we hear of Ci^sar the sole king (John xix, 15) of Cyrenius, '•governor of Syria" (Luke ii, 2); of Pontius Pilate, Felix, and Festus, the " governors," i. e. procurators, of Judaea; of the "tetrarchs" Herod, Philip, and Lysanias (iii, 1); of "king Agrippa" (Acts xxv, 13); of Roman soldiers, legions, centurions, publicans; of the tribute- money (Matt, xxii, 19) ; the taxing of" the whole world"
(Luke ii, 1) ; Italian and Augustan cohorts (Acts x, 1 ; xxvii, 1) ; the appeal to Ca?sar (xxv, 11). ' Several no- tices of the provincial administration of the Romans and the condition of provincial cities occur in the narrative of Paul's journeys (xiii, 7; xviii, 12; xvi, 12, 35, 38; xix, 38). See JuD^A.
II. Extent of the Empire, — Cicero's description of the Greek states and colonies as a " fringe on the skirts of barbarism" (Cicero, iJe Rep. ii, 4) has been well applied to the Roman dominions before the conquests of Pom- pey and Cffisar (INIerivale, Rom. Empire, iv, 409). The Roman empire was still confined to a narrow strip en- circling the Mediterranean Sea. Pompey added Asia Minor and Syria ; Cassar added Gaul. The generals of Augustus overran the north-west portion of Spain and the country between the Alps and the Danube. The boimdaries of the empire were now, the Atlantic on the west; the Euphrates on the east; the deserts of Africa, the cataracts of the Nile, and the Arabian deserts on the south ; the British Channel, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Black Sea on the north. The only subsequent con- quests of importance were those of Britain by Claudius, and of Dacia by Trajan. The only independent pow- ers of importance were the Parthians on the east and the Germans on the north.
The population of the empire in the time of Augustus has been calculated at 85,000,000 (Merivale, Rora. £■?»- 7;«re,iv, 442-450). Gibbon, speaking of the time of Clau- dius, puts the population at 120,000,000 {Decline and Fall, ch. ii). Count Franz de Champagny adopts the same number for the reign of Nero (Les Cesars, ii, 428). All these estimates are confessedly somewhat uncertain and conjectural.
This large population was controlled, in the time of Tiberius, by an army of twenty-five legions, exclusive of the prajtorian guards and other cohorts in the capital. The soldiers who composed the legions may be reckoned in round numbers at 170,000 men. If we add to these an equal number of auxiliaries (Tacit. Ann. iv, 5), we have a total force of 340,000 men. The prretorian guards may be reckoned at 10,000 (Dion Cass. Iv, 24). The oth- er cohorts would swell the garrison at Rome to 15,000 or 16,000 men. For the number and stations of the le- gions iu the time of Tiberius, comp. Tacit. Ann. iv, 5.
Map of ihe Roman Enipiie, showiug the Provinces.
ROMAN EMPIRE
89
ROMAN EMPIRE
The nav}' may have contained about 21,000 men {Les Cesars, ii, 429 ; corap. jNIerivale, iii, 534). The legion, as appears from what has been said, must have been '• more like a brigade than a regiment,'' consisting, as it did, of more than GUOO infantry with cavalry attached (Conybeare and Howson, ii, 2So).
III. IJome Eule. — The Roman government was at first kingly. Romulus, the first monarch, was probably succeeded by six others, during a period of two hundred and forty-four years, till in the year B.C. 509 kingly government was abolished when in the hands of Tar- quinius Superbus, in consequence of his arrogant and oppressive despotism. A consular form of government succeeded, which was at the first of an essentially aris- tocratic character, but was compelled to give way by degrees to popular influence, till men of jjlebeian origin made their way to the highest offices and first honors in the State, when the government became an oligar- chy ; then fell into anarchy, from which it was rescued by the strong hand of Octavius Cajsar, who became sole master of the world by defeating Antony at Actium on Sept.2, A.U. 723 (B.C. 31), though it was not till the year 725 that the senate named Octavius Imperator, nor till the year 727 that he received the sacred title of Augus- tus I. When Augustus became sole ruler of the Roman world, he was in theory simply the first citizen of the republic, intrusted with temporary powers to settle the disorders of the State. Tacitus says that he was nei- ther king nor dictator, but "prince" {Ann. i, 9), a title implying no civil authority, but simply the position of chief member of the senate (pi-inceps seiHiUis). The old magistracies were retained, but the various powers and prerogatives of each Avere conferred upon Augustus, so that while others commonly bore the chief official titles, Augustus had the supreme control of every department of the State — above all, he was the emperor {imperatoi-). This word, used originally to designate any one intrust- ed with the impei-ium, or full militarj' authority over a Roman army, acquired a new significance when adopted as a permanent title by Julius Ciesar. By his use of it as a constant prefix to his name in the city and in the camp he openl}' asserted a paramount military authori- ty over the State. Augustus, by resuming it, plainly indicated, in spite of much artful concealment, the real basis on which his power rested — viz. the support of the army (Merivale, Rom. Emjnre, vol. iii). In the New Test, the emperor is commonly designated by the family name " Ciesar," or the dignified and almost sacred title "Augustus" (for its meaning, comp. Ovid, Fasti, i, 609). Tiberius is called by implication »)ye/twi' in Luke iii, 1, a title applied in the New Test, to Cyrenius, Pilate, and others. Notwithstanding the despotic cliaracter of the government, the Romans seem to have shrunk from speaking of their ruler under his milirary title (see Merivale, Eom. Empire, iii, 452, and note) or any other avowedly despotic appellation. The use of the word o KvpioQ, dominns, " my lord," in Acts xxv, 26, marks the progress of Roman servility between the time of Augustus and Nero. Augustus and Tiberius refused this title. Caligula first bore it (see Alford's note in he. cit.; Ovid, Fasti, ii, 142). The term fiaaiXd'Q, "king," in John xix, 15; 1 Pet. ii, 17, cannot be closely pressed.